24 Mar 2009

Too Little, Too Late In Southeast Asia

The global economy is facing a very cheerless 2009. The OECD economies are sliding or already have slid into recession. Developing Asian countries face weaker demand for exports, lower flows of remittances and less investment. Lower energy prices may help some countries, but generally lower commodity prices hurt. The estimates of growth for 2009 fell as last year ended and the new one began. The countries more involved with international trade are clearly suffering the most with Singapore and Thailand expected to be in recession and Malaysia to eke out only slender growth. For some countries, the impact on growth may not seem horribly large, but these are moving targets and the bad news continues to come.

The impact of lower growth in Southeast Asia should not be underestimated. From an OECD or developed country's perspective, 3% to 4% growth doesn't seem so bad. From a Southeast Asian developing country's perspective, it is close to a growth recession and a policy disaster. Political expectations in Southeast Asia target growth well in excess of what is likely; 6% to 7% growth rates are medium-range targets in Malaysia and the Philippines. Political needs for growth relate partly to the commitment to lower poverty.

Over time, for most countries, the incidence of poverty tracks economic growth. A rough rule of thumb is that 1% growth in per capita national income in Southeast Asia results in a 2 percentage-point decrease in the incidence of poverty. In this region, perhaps 200 million people live on or under $2 per day, from a population of approximately 512 million. If growth slackens, large numbers of people will be affected: A 2% fall-off in growth could translate to 20 million people being left in or reduced to poverty. Most of these people will be living in the more populous countries: Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. It is not just the poor that will suffer in a downturn. The middle class will see the loss of jobs and a fall-off in income and in their family businesses. Just as in the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis, the gains of past years are put at risk as businesses fail and trading opportunities vanish. In Southeast Asia, the middle class will make their unhappiness known in the political arena.

The fear of a growth slowdown is quite apparent in the response of monetary policy: there have been determined steps in most countries toward easing credit conditions and shoring up domestic demand. Policy makers rapidly changed from worrying about inflation (when oil prices were widely viewed as likely to stay above $100 per barrel) to fighting a world-wide credit crunch and falling demand. Even before the end of 2008, Singapore had increased liquidity; Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam had all cut key monetary policy rates and taken other steps to ease domestic credit markets. These steps show a clear focus and flexibility-when conditions changed, so did policy. That monetary policy has been quick to react partly reflects real success in establishing independent monetary authorities. A relatively small group of people in each country has been able to respond to clearly changing conditions in a timely fashion.

Fiscal policy measures, in contrast, appear hesitant, small, and unlikely to have impact over the near term; certainly not commensurate with the economic slowdown we are seeing. Government spending, which could help support domestic demand, especially in the larger nations, is not yet being used to stimulate the economy. At the end of 2008, looking forward to 2009, fiscal policy in most countries was little changed in spite of the expected fall-off in growth. Only in the case of Thailand was there a clear, early public commitment to use fiscal policy to support economic activity and even there, political difficulties suggest implementation could be uncertain. By February of this year, across the region, some additional planning to use fiscal policy is starting to appear, but by no means everywhere. Asia is losing time.

Part of the problem reflects the decision-making processes. In the larger countries, such as Indonesia, the Philippines and in Thailand, changing the government's budget, and establishing a political consensus on what to do, is no easier than it is in the United States, which has seen months of delay on a stimulus plan.

One issue hindering Southeast Asian public spending is a fear of falling into "debt traps." Indonesia and the Philippines, especially, have had experiences of public debt weighing on public financial resources for years, restricting fiscal freedom and imposing real costs. The Asian financial crisis drastically elevated external debt levels for some countries. Over time, however, most nations have reduced their external indebtedness. Statistics for total public debt generally show the same trends. For Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, as of 2007, public debt as a fraction of GDP ranged from 35% to 42%. The Philippines is the one large nation that potentially is still dogged by past debt problems. While public debt has fallen in the Philippines in relation to the size of the economy, it was still 62.3% of GDP in 2007, well above its regional neighbors. Other than the Philippines, the larger ASEAN countries have fiscal freedom that was lacking earlier in the decade.

A second fear inhibiting the use of fiscal policy may be a legitimate concern over whether deficit spending will be effective. There has been an extensive debate about the efficacy of fiscal policy, especially with respect to long-term outcomes. But in a situation in which there is general weakness in the world economy, when excess capacity is growing, and when monetary policy in most countries is being directed at fighting contractionary tendencies, there should be few theoretical concerns. If ASEAN as a group moves to expand public spending, the impact is likely to be larger than if only some member nations do. Although, as a group, they are not their own most important markets, coordinated efforts will lessen "leakages" through imports. The general issue of fiscal policy and stimulus packages was on the agenda for the Special ASEAN Plus Three finance ministers' meeting, held in February 2009, in Phuket, Thailand; however, it was overshadowed in the press reports by other topics, such as the mechanisms for swapping foreign exchange to countries in difficulty.

This is not to give license to any and all ideas to spend -- bridges to nowhere are still poor choices. But most large nations in Southeast Asia have some leeway to increase spending and to cushion the current slide of their economies. In these situations, it is often suggested that governments quicken their spending for infrastructure. This is particularly appealing for Indonesia and the Philippines where there are well identified needs. In both countries investment for infrastructure as a fraction of GDP has hovered in the 2% to 3% range, a fraction of what is needed to provide for roads, ports, safe water and electricity. Both countries suffer from uneven infrastructure service provision across the nearly 24,000 islands. Indonesia has recently announced that it will seek to spend for infrastructure as one way to support the economy.

Unfortunately, experience shows that new infrastructure programs are very difficult to start in a short period of time. In particular, "greenfield" infrastructure projects take years to move from idea to implementation. Partly that is good news; today's ASEAN countries are developing more robust, if somewhat cantankerous, democratic institutions. Government-spending programs require considerable political consensus to institute large-scale changes. Implementation demands more local-level consultations, all of which means that governments are more responsive to their citizens, but all of which requires time that is lacking in a crisis. If spending money quickly is important, infrastructure projects are not the best idea.

There are alternatives. A central concern with low growth rates is the impact on the poor. An estimated 200 million people face a $2 per day budget, mostly in Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. While these countries are not rich enough to win any short-term "war on poverty" they are capable, in this period of economic distress, of devoting 1% to 2% of GDP to supporting the poor in direct ways, which could make a tremendous difference. Even in Vietnam, 2% of GDP would allow the government to give an extra $1 a day to the poorest 5% of the population. In Indonesia and the Philippines you could cover 9% to 10% of the population, and in richer Thailand you could reach the poorest 20% of the population.

Of course the situation is not so simple; governments cannot simply throw money at a particular group of poor people. There is little difference between people at the high end of the poorest 20% of the population and the people at the low end of the next group up. To help one without helping the other is neither equitable nor politically sensible. Moreover, simply giving money to large groups of people goes against most of the grain of current policy. But transferring money to the poor and near-poor is likely to be pretty efficient at stimulating economic activity. Arguably it is the poorer in the population who will not save the money, and who will immediately use the funds to buy local goods and services. The businesses of the middle class depend on the spending of the poor.

There are, moreover, targeted processes that can transfer money to poor people in a short period of time and accomplish other goals for the countries. Conditional cash transfers are perhaps the most important of these. These programs provide cash support to families on certain conditions, for instance, that children attend school and are taken regularly to health posts. This means that the program of income support to the families ensures that investments are made in children. Given the dramatic differences that early childhood learning and health care can make in lifetime earnings, this is an investment that will ultimately pay off for the countries. Programs of this type have been instituted in Indonesia and piloted in the Philippines. Conditional cash transfers are only one example of programs that can mitigate the impact of growing poverty, while also providing for greater economic potential in the future. The Philippines provides examples of community development guided by very strong civil-society organizations that have meant real improvements in living standards, especially in urban areas. Funds used in this fashion have a high multiplier impact: When directed to the poor, little money will be saved and most will be used to buy goods and services, thus supporting a broader economy.

In past periods of economic distress, calls to provide support for the poor have struggled to overcome a fear that funds would simply be stolen. Southeast Asian countries have uneven reputations for governance. However, the experience with social-safety nets, especially in Indonesia and the Philippines during the 1997-98 financial crisis, suggest that proper organization provides systems that can be accountable, although problems were surely noted. More importantly, technology is on the side of good governance. The spread of the Internet and the ubiquitous use of cell phones have sharply reduced the costs of tracking government actions. The growing strength of civil-society organizations provides a watch dog that governments increasingly have difficulty ignoring. Transferring funds to millions of people cannot be done without opportunities for theft, but we can do the job better than we have done before as a result of information technology advances.

Last year was abysmal for many in the developed world. The collapse of asset markets and commodity prices has made sure that these troubles will travel to Southeast Asia. But with this warning there is the opportunity to implement programs to protect the vulnerable and cushion the fall in overall growth. To date, however, most countries appear to have found it easier to rely upon monetary policy and a hope that the present crisis will pass quickly, than to truly marshal the fiscal resources needed to turn the economic tide. The year has started with the risk that, by December, we will have done little to help ourselves.
By David Jay Green

Im lặng nhưng không đồng tình ( CHINA - VIETNAM Island )

Tháng Giêng 1974, khi hải quân của Cộng hòa Nhân dân Trung Hoa đánh chiếm Hoàng Sa và buộc quân đội Nam Việt Nam rút khỏi đó, ban lãnh đạo Bắc Việt không hề có phát ngôn công khai, dù là ủng hộ hay phản đối.

Báo chí Bắc Việt không hề đề cập vụ đụng độ giữa Sài Gòn và Bắc Kinh. Phản ứng chính thức duy nhất trước cuộc xâm lăng của Trung Quốc là một tuyên bố ngắn gọn, thận trọng của Chính phủ Cách mạng Lâm thời miền Nam, kêu gọi có giải pháp thương lượng và hòa bình về mọi tranh cãi lãnh thổ.

Kho lưu trữ Hungary

Kể từ đó, sự im lặng của Hà Nội đã thường bị xem là thể hiện sự đồng tình của ban lãnh đạo trước hành động của Trung Quốc. Theo đó, thái độ thụ động của Bắc Việt hẳn là do sự thừa nhận ngầm về chủ quyền lịch sử của Bắc Kinh. Quan điểm này được hỗ trợ nhờ thông báo năm 1956 của Ung Văn Khiêm gửi tham tán Trung Quốc về chủ quyền lịch sử của Trung Quốc đối với Hoàng Sa và Trường Sa - gợi ý rằng "im lặng có nghĩa là đồng thuận". Quan điểm này nói nếu Bắc Việt không tán thành cuộc xâm lăng, thì phải nói ra chứ.

Iim lặng của miền Bắc chủ yếu là do cân nhắc chiến thuật ngắn hạn của Hà Nội.

Balazs Szalontai

Nhưng tài liệu tôi tìm thấy từ Kho Lưu trữ Quốc gia Hungary lại kể một câu chuyện khác. Chúng gợi ý rằng sự im lặng của miền Bắc chủ yếu là do cân nhắc chiến thuật ngắn hạn của Hà Nội, chứ không phải vì sự đồng ý về pháp lý giữa Trung Quốc và Việt Nam.

Sau vụ xâm lấn, Thứ trưởng Ngoại giao Nguyễn Cơ Thạch nói với đại sứ Hungary ở Hà Nội rằng "có nhiều văn bản và dữ liệu về quần đảo của Việt Nam". Các cán bộ khác của miền Bắc nói với các nhà ngoại giao Hungary rằng theo họ, xung đột giữa Trung Quốc và chính thể Sài Gòn chỉ là tạm thời; họ nói sau đó, "vấn đề này sẽ là vấn đề cho cả quốc gia Việt Nam." Khác với Bắc Kinh, Hà Nội không hề xem vụ việc đã khép lại. Một vụ trưởng của Bộ Ngoại giao Bắc Việt nói với Hungary rằng chính phủ miền Bắc dự tính sẽ họp với Trung Quốc để làm rõ vấn đề.

Tháng Chín 1975, Tổng Bí thư Lê Duẩn nêu vấn đề Hoàng Sa trong chuyến thăm Trung Quốc. Phản ứng không khoan nhượng của Bắc Kinh rõ ràng làm lãnh đạo Việt Nam bực mình. Sang tháng 11, một cán bộ Việt Nam nói với nhà ngoại giao Hungary rằng Hoàng Sa "là phần không thể tách rời của Việt Nam và chúng tôi sẽ không bao giờ từ bỏ chủ quyền với các đảo nhiều dầu hỏa này có tầm quan trọng chiến lược."

Dấu hiệu phản đối của Việt Nam, gián tiếp nhưng rõ rệt, đã xuất hiện từ những tháng đầu của 1974. Sau khi Trung Quốc chiếm đảo, Bắc Việt bắt đầu gây khó khăn cho Hoa kiều khi muốn thăm thân nhân ở đại lục, và cũng không cho nhiều công dân đại lục sang miền Bắc thăm người thân. Nếu Hà Nội đồng ý cho Trung Quốc chiếm Hoàng Sa, hẳn những cử chỉ này đã không xảy ra.

Tham vọng lãnh thổ của Hà Nội không phải xuất phát từ việc làm đồng minh của Liên Xô mà đó là mục tiêu của Việt Nam mà thôi. Thực ra, các bản đồ Liên Xô sau năm 1950 đều đánh dấu Hoàng Sa là của Trung Quốc, và vì thế thật khó cho Kremlin công khai phản đối Trung Quốc.

Tính toán

Hà Nội không vui khi Gerald Ford gặp Leonid Brezhnev năm 1974

Nhưng nếu Bắc Việt phản đối Trung Quốc chiếm Hoàng Sa, tại sao họ im lặng trong trận đánh và cũng đã yêu cầu Moscow im lặng? Để trả lời, ta phải phân tích kỹ quan hệ Trung-Việt và Xô-Việt trong giai đoạn 1972-74.

Năm 1972 và nửa đầu năm 1973, lãnh đạo Hà Nội rõ ràng bất mãn trước quan hệ cải thiện của Mỹ và Trung Quốc. Theo họ, Trung Quốc đã hy sinh quyền lợi Việt Nam. Nhưng cuối 1973 đầu 1974, quan hệ Trung - Mỹ bắt đầu xấu đi, vì Mao Trạch Đông kết luận rằng chính sách của Washington về Đài Loan và Liên Xô không đáp ứng mong đợi của ông. Tình hình mới buộc Bắc Kinh và Hà Nội linh động hơn với nhau.

Vào cuối năm 1973 và đầu 1974, giới ngoại giao Liên Xô ở Hà Nội ghi nhận phía Trung Quốc bắt đầu mềm mỏng hơn trong giao dịch với Bắc Việt - có lẽ vì nếu xảy ra đồng thời xung đột với cả Mỹ và Bắc Việt, quyền lợi của Trung Quốc sẽ bị nguy hại.

Lãnh đạo Bắc Việt dĩ nhiên chẳng thích gì phe Mao tuyển đang một lần nữa thắng thế trên chính trường Trung Quốc. Nhưng họ không thích Chu Ân Lai, kiến trúc sư trong hòa giải Mỹ - Trung và nay cũng là đối tượng tấn công của phe Mao tuyển. Có thể họ hy vọng sự hòa giải Mỹ - Trung sẽ phần nào bị đảo ngược và vì thế muốn tránh gây hấn với Bắc Kinh - đặc biệt vì Hiệp định Paris 1973 đã không chấm dứt giao tranh giữa chính quyền Thiệu và quân cách mạng.

Tháng Chín 1973, Lê Duẩn và Phạm Văn Đồng nói với Fidel Castro rằng nếu miền Nam tiếp tục tấn công "vùng giải phóng", quân cộng sản sẽ đánh lại cho đến khi chính phủ Thiệu sụp đổ. Trong hoàn cảnh đó, rõ ràng Bắc Việt cần có hòa hoãn tạm thời với Trung Quốc.

Thời điểm Trung Quốc lấn chiếm cho thấy Bắc Kinh muốn hành động trước khi chính quyền Sài Gòn sụp đổ - tức là trước khi Hà Nội có thể giành lấy các hòn đảo tranh chấp

Balazs Szalontai

Thái độ thận trọng của Bắc Việt với Trung Quốc cũng còn là vì Hà Nội không tin Liên Xô. Nếu họ đã không thích sự gần gũi Mỹ - Trung thì họ cũng chẳng ưa gì việc Mỹ - Xô hòa hoãn. Cuộc hội đàm của Nixon ở Moscow và Brezhnev ở Vladivostok với Gerald Ford rõ ràng bị Hà Nội chau mày.

Về phần mình, Liên Xô cảm thấy sự hung hăng của đồng minh Bắc Việt có thể dẫn tới rắc rối to trên trường quốc tế. Tháng 11.1974, chỉ vài tháng trước khi Hà Nội đánh thắng miền Nam, đại sứ Liên Xô Shcherbakov nói với các đồng nghiệp Đông Âu rằng Moscow quyết tâm ngăn chiến tranh bùng nổ ở Việt Nam, vì nó đi ngược lại mục tiêu căn bản trong chính sách toàn cầu Liên Xô.

Lời nói của Shcherbakov để lộ ra là Liên Xô muốn giảm ảnh hưởng của Trung Quốc ở Bắc Việt hơn là hỗ trợ Hà Nội dùng vũ lực thống nhất đất nước. Cuối năm 1973, phái đoàn của Phạm Văn Đồng, khi đi thăm Đông Đức, đã công khai tuyên bố chính sách hòa hoãn của Moscow chẳng đem lại kết quả tích cực ở châu Âu, và nói cả Liên Xô và Trung Quốc đều có cống hiến lớn cho phong trào cộng sản quốc tế. Tức là trong năm 1973-74, Hà Nội vẫn không chịu theo phe nào giữa Liên Xô và Trung Quốc.

Tóm lại, có lẽ chúng ta không thể dùng nguyên tắc "im lặng là đồng ý" để giải thích hành vi của Hà Nội trong trận hải chiến Trung Quốc - Nam Việt Nam. Sự thụ động tạm thời của Bắc Việt phản ánh tính toán chiến thuật chứ không mang tính chiến lược hay pháp lý.

Trong khi đang còn đánh nhau với miền Nam và nghi ngờ Kremlin, Hà Nội ắt hẳn cảm thấy họ không thể cùng đối đầu với Bắc Kinh. Nhưng ngay sau khi chính quyền Thiệu sụp đổ, Bắc Việt không ngần ngại kêu đòi Hoàng Sa.

Thời điểm Trung Quốc lấn chiếm cho thấy Bắc Kinh muốn hành động trước khi chính quyền Sài Gòn sụp đổ - tức là trước khi Hà Nội có thể giành lấy các hòn đảo tranh chấp.

Về tác giả: Tiến sĩ Balazs Szalontai từng dạy ở Đại học Khoa học Công nghệ Mông Cổ và hiện là một nhà nghiên cứu độc lập ở Hungary. Ông là tác giả cuốn sách Kim Nhật Thành trong thời kỳ Khruschev (Đại học Stanford và Trung tâm Woodrow Wilson xuất bản, 2006).

18 Mar 2009

Yes, Globalization Passed Its Peak

Will It Ever Come Back?

Rawi Abdelal and Adam Segal

RAWI ABDELAL is the Joseph C. Wilson Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School.

ADAM SEGAL is Maurice R. Greenberg Senior Fellow for China Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations.

Two years ago, in an article [1] in the January/February issue of Foreign Affairs, we argued that the process of worldwide economic integration was likely to continue but that political support for globalization was rapidly weakening. Without political and institutional underpinnings, we feared, the single global economic space could disintegrate, just as it had during the 1930s. Politicians and mass publics in the United States, Europe, and Asia were not only skeptical that the benefits of globalization outweighed the costs, they also seemed intent on raising new barriers to the movement of people, capital, goods, and services across borders. The future looked muddled, driven by strong technological forces pushing global commercial and financial integration forward and equally potent political forces pushing in the opposite direction.

At the time, many people considered us overly pessimistic [2]. Now it looks like we might have been too sanguine. The IMF predicts that global economic activity will expand by only 0.5 percent in 2009 -- down from 3.4 percent in 2008 and 5.2 percent in 2007. Global trade is expected to fall by more than 2.1 percent this year, and no major exporting country has escaped: China exported nearly 18 percent less in January 2008 than it did just one year earlier; for Korea, the drop was 33 percent; for Taiwan, 42 percent; and for Japan, 46 percent. According to the Institute of International Finance, private investment in developing economies has collapsed, falling more than 80 percent from its 2007 level. Whereas the worry two years ago was about the renaissance of state capitalism in energy and finance, it now appears that the banking sector in the United States, and almost every other major developed economy, will end up wholly or partially owned by the state.

Our description of the future as "muddled" turns out to have been an understatement. Today many are pessimistic about the future of the international system for the same reasons we were two years ago. In January, the World Trade Organization hopefully reported that most states were resisting the lure of protectionism. Although many were offering subsidies to their banks and auto manufacturers, it noted, "to date, most WTO Members appear to have successfully kept domestic protectionist pressures under control." A month later, the organization was no longer so certain, and optimism about the future was more difficult to locate. In the last several months, Brazil has raised tariffs on manufactured goods, the European Union has barred Chinese bolts and resumed subsidies on dairy products, and India has considered tariffs on steel imports.

The uproar among U.S. trade partners over the "buy American" principle initially embedded in the stimulus package -- companies would have been required to use U.S. steel and other goods in projects -- is a clear reflection of the concern that the economic crisis might kill globalization in its current form. Speaking out against the "buy America" provisions, President Barack Obama warned that the United States could not afford to send a protectionist message or "trigger a trade war." While this particular Smoot-Hawley-like bullet was ultimately dodged, protectionist temptations will not disappear and the political struggle for openness is likely to become ever more contentious.

The current crisis has caused the destruction of value, the contraction of capital, a decline in consumption, and an increase in unemployment. But its ultimate impact may be even more pervasive, because the crisis has further undermined the political legitimacy of the free movement of capital, goods, and services.

The legitimacy problem existed beforehand, of course, but the current downturn is making it much, much worse. When we wrote our article in 2007, for example, the U.S. public was wondering about how much globalization benefited them and whether some Americans -- say, bankers and CEOs of large corporations -- had benefited too much. Try asking the question now. The Chinese, meanwhile, were already working hard to keep all their plates spinning, ensuring continued rapid growth while addressing rising inequality and social protests. Soon the floor might be full of broken crockery.

As one of the most prolific exporters and important investors in U.S. dollar-denominated assets, China must play an important role in saving the global economy from which it has benefited so much. Beijing gamely talks about the need to "rebalance," shifting to a more domestic demand-driven model of growth, but has found it hard to abandon incentives for even more exports. Premier Wen Jiabao told the Financial Times, "Running our own affairs well is our biggest contribution to mankind." Perhaps. But the world will also need reassurances that Beijing's appetite for Treasury securities will outlast a crisis that, in the medium term, will threaten the value of the U.S. dollar.

Our message two years ago was that policy leaders needed to manage expectations at home as they worked together internationally. In particular, we argued that the United States needed to reinforce the global institutions that supported international trade while getting its own domestic house in order. Following through on these prescriptions is now even more necessary. In order to avoid disaster, all of the major economic players are going to have to resist pressure to protect home markets through subsidies or tariffs. Individual governments need to tackle the downturn through macroeconomic and financial policies; unemployment and worker retraining should be addressed through expanding and strengthening the social safety net. The United States in particular needs to absorb one of the most important lessons of European social democracy -- that a generous, well-designed welfare state is not the antithesis of capitalist globalization but rather its savior.

Amid all this gloom and doom, however, there is also a glimmer of optimism. Over the past 15 years, American capitalism lost its way, abetted by a world much too ready to lend it vast amounts of capital. The U.S. economy -- its households and companies -- essentially squandered those borrowed funds, saving and investing less, building and consuming more. The debate about the sustainability of those global imbalances has lost any charm it might once have had. Now, some $11 trillion of losses later, the answer is clear. And if the crisis proves to be a catharsis that persuades the United States to change its profligate ways, the legitimacy and promise of globalization may eventually be restored.
Source URL: http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/64856/rawi-abdelal-and-adam-segal/yes-globalization-passed-its-peak

The Dangers of 'Deglobalization'

March 16, 2009
Author: Jayshree Bajoria
From construction laborers to Harvard-educated bankers, foreign workers are being forced to return home as once-booming economies around the world contract. Globally, 24 million to 52 million people could lose their jobs in 2009, according to the International Labor Organization's latest estimates. And populist sentiment and protectionist moves in countries which relied on foreign laborers during the boom years have put 200 million migrant workers internationally in the crosshairs.

Examples of the new protectionism abound: The United States enacted a law in 2009 imposing strict restrictions on hiring of skilled immigrant workers by companies receiving government bailout money. Malaysia and Saudi Arabia directed companies to lay off foreign workers first if they needed to downsize. In Britain, large-scale protests (Telegraph) were held against the use of foreign workers at an oil refinery. The Philippines reports over 5000 Filipino workers lost their jobs overseas from October 2008 to January 2009. Even Ireland is debating its liberal immigration laws which allowed for massive levels of immigration to sustain the country's economic growth since the late 1990s. In a September 2008 poll, as the country's economy faltered, 66 percent of Irish felt immigration policy should be made more restrictive (IrishTimes).

Experts dub this deglobalization. Some analysts also express fears of a reverse brain drain. Examining skilled immigrant contributions to the United States, Duke University professor Vivek Wadhwa notes immigrants founded a quarter (Issues in Science and Technology) of all U.S. engineering and technology companies between 1995 and 2005, including half of those in Silicon Valley. CFR's Matthew Slaughter says skilled immigrants can help revive the economy by creating more jobs in the United States. "Keeping them out damages us," he writes, as a co-author of a recent op-ed (WSJ). Wadhwa's research points out immigrant-founded tech companies generated $52 billion in revenue and employed 450,000 workers in 2005.

In the short term, experts worry about protectionist measures and job loss sending migrants home and curtailing levels of migration from origin to destination countries. This would result in reduced remittances which, when coupled with increased unemployment in countries of origin, prompt fears of social and political upheaval. The World Bank says global remittances are expected to fall (PDF) by 0.9 percent in 2009, but could fall by as much as 6 percent if the economic situation worsens. The International Organization for Migration also warns against the risk of rising xenophobia (PDF) "based on the false perception" that migrants steal jobs from local workers.

In the long-term, writes Stephen Castles, co-author of the book The Age of Migration, the motivation to migrate (PDF) in times of recession may be even higher than before, and remittances may prove a resilient form of international transfer. He also argues global economic inequality and the demographic imbalances between the ageing populations of the North and massive working-age people in the South remain important factors in generating future migration.

The recent fall in arrests (LAT) of illegal immigrants at the U.S.-Mexico border raises question: Will a poor labor market in developed economies deter illegal immigration? Experts appear divided. Some, in fact, think tighter immigration laws in traditional destination markets will merely strengthen black-market activity.

To respond effectively to the financial crisis, economists generally argue against rich countries barring their doors to migrants. In October 2008, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon stressed migration can help lift the world out of its economic crisis. "Now more than ever, politicians and policymakers need to cooperate across borders," he said. There are also demands for reforming immigration laws that do not discourage skilled labor, but at the same time secures borders. In a new interview with CFR.org, former Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff says U.S. lawmakers should be preparing changes to immigration policy in anticipation of the country's economic revival. "[T]here is something to be said for getting it right now before the economy starts to grow again, and the demand for workers becomes increased," he says.