Diều hâu chỉ có thể nhượng bộ diều hâu chứ không thể nhượng bộ bồ câu. Với các nước ASEAN có tranh chấp trên Biển Đông, trừ phi họ cùng đứng lại với nhau, nếu không sẽ không phải là đối thủ đáng để Trung Quốc nhượng bộ.
Tuần Việt Nam xin giới thiệu bài viết của tác giả, bạn đọc Dự Trần - cố vấn của Quỹ Nghiên cứu Biển Đông như một tư liệu để bạn đọc tham chiếu.
Từng bước thiết lập chủ quyền trên thực tế dù không có cơ sở pháp lý
Tham vọng của Trung Quốc trên biển Đông từ lâu đã là một lá bài ngửa. Từ năm 1947, họ đã xuất bản bản đồ địa giới và hải giới Trung Quốc trên Biển Đông với 11 "đường viền gạch nối). Từ 1953 trở lại đây thì 2 đường viền gạch nối trên Vịnh Bắc Bộ đã bị xóa đi, để lại bản đồ chính thức của Trung Quốc với 9 đường gạch nối (hình chữ U hay hình lưỡi bò).
Theo Zou Keyuan thuộc ĐHQG Singapore thì các đường viền này không nhất thiết phản ánh quan điểm ban đầu của Trung Quốc về lãnh hải của nước này. Tuy nhiên, với việc Trung Quốc phản ứng quyết liệt trước các động thái khai thác dầu khí của Việt Nam ở vùng Tư Chính – Vũng Mây và bồn trũng Nam Côn Sơn thì có vẻ như tới giờ họ đã nghiễm nhiên coi toàn bộ diện tích mặt biển gói bằng 9 đường viền gạch đứt là lãnh hải của họ.
Trung Quốc mạnh hơn hẳn Việt Nam và các nước ASEAN khác cùng tranh chấp như Phillipine hay Malaysia. Đây là một sự thực rõ như ban ngày. Sự chênh lệch về sức mạnh kinh tế và quân sự, kèm theo các phản ứng rất chừng mực và đơn lẻ, từ các đối thủ ASEAN đã khiến Trung Quốc tùy ý vận dụng chiến lược diều hâu trên Biển Đông.
Từ khoảng 20 năm đổ lại đây, họ đã sử dụng một công thức tổng hợp bao gồm (1) tấn công quân sự quy mô nhỏ (Việt Nam, 1988, Philippine, 1996, 1997), (2) đơn phương thăm dò và khai thác tài nguyên trên vùng tranh chấp, (3) đe dọa bằng vũ lực (đối với ngư dân) hoặc sức ép kinh tế (với các tập đoàn dầu khí quốc tế) nhằm ngăn chặn các đối thủ tiến hành khai thác tài nguyên trong vùng tranh chấp, (4) chia rẽ các đối thủ bằng kinh tế và ngoại giao, và (5) tuyên truyền về chủ quyền và thái độ cứng rắn của họ đối với vấn đề Biển Đông trên toàn thế giới.
Công thức này có mục tiêu hướng vào việc thiết lập chủ quyền trên thực tế (de-facto) trên vùng biển này. Đứng về phía Trung Quốc thì chiến lược này là tối ưu vì một mặt nó không biến Trung Quốc thành một gã đồ tể hiếu chiến, nhưng lại giúp họ từng bước lấy được Biển Đông trong khi tuyên bố chủ quyền của họ không hề có cơ sở pháp lý (de-jure). Đáng tiếc cho ASEAN là chiến lược này đang đạt được các thành quả ngoài sức mong đợi cho Trung Quốc.
Chiến lược diều hâu trên Biển Đông Trung Hoa
Cần nhớ rằng chiến lược diều hâu không chỉ được Trung Quốc sử dụng trên Biển Đông. Họ cũng đã từng sử dụng công thức này trong cuộc tranh chấp ở Biển Đông Trung Quốc (East China Sea) với Nhật Bản. Tuy nhiên, kết quả của nó lại không giống như thành tựu mà nó đưa lại trong cuộc tranh chấp trên Biển Đông.
Trong cuộc tranh chấp với Nhật, Trung Quốc cũng đơn phương tiến hành thăm dò/khai thác trên vùng biển tranh chấp bất chấp sự phản đối quyết liệt của Nhật. Họ cũng thường xuyên đưa tàu chiến và tàu ngầm tới vùng biển này để dằn mặt hải quân Nhật Bản. Căng thẳng diễn ra đỉnh điểm vào cuối 2003 và đầu 2004, tới mức chiến tranh tưởng như đã cận kề.
Từ tháng 8, 2003, chính phủ Trung Quốc đã ký xong các thỏa thuận khai thác với các công ty dầu khí Trung Quốc và nước ngoài như Royal Dutch/Shell và Unocal với trị giá lên tới nhiều tỉ Mỹ kim. Nhật lên tiếng phản đối vì cho rằng hoạt động khai thác này lấy cớ rằng rằng nó sẽ hút cạn nguồn dầu khí nằm sâu trong lòng biển thuộc về hải phận của Nhật. Trung Quốc bỏ ngoài tai phản ứng này của đối phương.
Trước động thái của Trung Quốc, Nhật đã quyết định trả đũa. Họ đã đưa tàu thăm dò tới vùng biển tranh chấp từ tháng 7, 2004 để chuẩn bị đơn phương thăm dò và khai thác. Đương nhiên Trung Quốc đã quyết liệt phản đối và coi hoạt động này là vi phạm chủ quyền. Tuy nhiên, các phản ứn chỉ dừng lại ở mức ngoại giao và kinh tế.
Khi cả hai bên đã bộc lộ thái độ sẵn sàng ăn miếng trả miếng, thì lối thoát duy nhất chỉ có thể là hợp tác khai thác – trừ khi họ sẵn sàng cho chiến tranh. Sau nhiều vòng đàm phán, tới tháng 6, 2008, Nhật và Trung Quốc đã đạt được thỏa thuận khai thác chung. Các khu vực khai thác chung được thỏa thuận đều nằm trên vùng giáp ranh giữa hải giới của hai nước, nhưng theo quan điểm của Nhật chứ không phải theo quan điểm của Trung Quốc (bản đồ 1).
Rõ ràng là trong thỏa thuận này, đường ranh giới do Trung Quốc vẽ không có chút giá trị nào. Nhật Bản có thể phải nhượng bộ ít nhiều đứng từ lập trường của họ (thí dụ về quy tắc ăn chia trong hợp tác khai thác) nhưng lập trường của họ về ranh giới trên biển Đông Trung Quốc đã được giữ vững.
Chiến lược diều hâu ở Biển Đông
Trong thỏa thuận hợp tác với Nhật, hai bên đã cùng viện dẫn Công ước Quốc tế về Luật biển. Lập trường của họ khác nhau ở chỗ giải thích luật này như thế nào. Trong khi Nhật bản cho rằng phải sử dụng đường trung tuyến làm ranh giới thì Trung Quốc cho rằng phải sử dụng giới hạn thềm lục địa của nước này làm ranh giới. Cả hai cách giải thích này đều đã có tiền lệ, và vì thế tuyên bố chủ quyền của Trung Quốc không phải không có cơ sở.
Trái lại, tuyên bố của họ về chủ quyền trên Biển Đông, với bản đồ chủ quyền gồm 9 điểm gạch nối lại hoàn toàn tùy tiện và không có cơ sở pháp lý. Hình lưỡi bò này xuất hiện trước cả Công ước Geneva về thềm lục địa (1958) và Công ước Quốc tế về luật biển (1982). Từ khi 2 công ước này ra đời, Trung Quốc vẫn không sửa lại bản đồ xác định chủ quyền của họ.
Thiếu cơ sở pháp lý như vậy nhưng nước này đã rất thành công trong chiến lược tiến chiếm Biển Đông. Họ đã thành công trong mục tiêu chia rẽ các nước ASEAN có cùng tranh chấp. Họ cũng thành công trong việc dằn mặt ngư dân các nước láng giềng cũng như các tập đoàn dầu khí quốc tế muốn làm ăn với Việt Nam. Trung Quốc đã tổ chức thăm dò ở các vùng biển sát thềm lục địa (và nằm trong vùng đặc quyền) của Việt Nam.
Gần đây nhất, sau nhiều năm tổ chức thăm dò, vào ngày 24 tháng 11 vừa qua, Trung Quốc đã công bố dự án khai thác dầu khí ở vùng nước sâu trên Biển Đông với trị giá lên tới 29 tỉ Mỹ kim. Tuyên bố này nhanh chóng trở thành tin trang nhất trên khắp thế giới[4]. Phần lớn các hãng tin quốc tế, khi đưa tin về dự án này đã không đả động gì tới thực tế là vùng biển này đang bị tranh chấp, và thực tế là Trung Quốc không hề có chủ quyền về mặt pháp lý ở đây.
Lý do thành công của diều hâu
Có ba lý do quan trọng để chiến lược diều hâu của Trung Quốc thành công ở Biển Đông: Một là các nước ASEAN như Việt Nam và Phillipine đã rất yếu trong việc đưa vấn đề tranh chấp này tới công luận quốc tế trong khi cỗ máy tuyên truyền khổng lồ của Trung Quốc đã làm tốt việc kết nối Biển Nam Trung Quốc với chủ quyền của Trung Quốc. Vì thế, về mặt công luận quốc tế, Việt Nam và các nước ASEAN cùng tranh chấp ở Biển Đông không được ủng hộ - mặc dù lập trường của họ chính nghĩa hơn về mặt pháp lý.
Thứ hai là các nước này đều phản ứng rất yếu ớt trước sự lấn át của Trung Quốc. Điều này có cơ sở thực tế là nếu đứng riêng biệt từng nước thì họ đều ở vào thế yếu xét cả về tiềm lực kinh tế và quân sự. Do ở thế yếu, họ không thể đưa ra những đe dọa khả tín nào ngay cả khi họ muốn.
Thứ ba là mặc dù ở vào tình thế lép vế nếu đứng riêng lẻ, các nước ASEAN lại không hợp tác với nhau trong cuộc tranh chấp với Trung Quốc. Thí dụ như Phillipine đã dễ dàng bị mua đứt để đồng ý ký thỏa thuận hợp tác song phương với Trung Quốc trong khi bỏ mặc Việt Nam sang một bên. Điều này phản ánh ba thực tế đáng buồn: (1) sức ảnh hưởng của Trung Quốc ăn quá sâu vào ASEAN, (2) thiếu sự tin tưởng lẫn nhau giữa các nước ASEAN về vấn đề Biển Đông, (3) các chính phủ ASEAN trong từng thời điểm cụ thể đã tỏ ra thiếu viễn kiến.
Bài học về cuộc tranh chấp của Trung Quốc với Nhật và thỏa ước hợp tác khai thác giữa hai nước này cho thấy Trung Quốc không phải không chịu nhượng bộ. Diều hâu chỉ có thể nhượng bộ diều hâu chứ không thể nhượng bộ bồ câu. Với các nước ASEAN có tranh chấp trên Biển Đông, trừ phi họ cùng đứng lại với nhau, sẽ không phải là đối thủ đáng để Trung Quốc nhượng bộ.
Quỹ nghiên cứu Biển Đông, trong nỗ lực đem lại sự tin tưởng lẫn nhau và khả năng hợp tác giữa các nước ASEAN trên vấn đề Biển Đông, đã đề xướng các nước này gác qua một bên các tranh chấp về đảo/bãi đá trên ở Trường Sa để tập trung vào việc phân định một cách công bằng chủ quyền trên vùng biển này theo Công ước Quốc tế về luật biển.
Có thể nói không ngoa rằng đây là một trong những cửa thoát hẹp, nếu không muốn nói là cửa thoát duy nhất, cho các nước nhỏ yếu trong ASEAN trong cuộc đối đầu với chiến lược diều hâu của Trung Quốc trên Biển Đông.
Dự Trần
Vài nét về tác giả bài viết
Tác giả bài viết là Tiến sĩ kinh tế học Dự Trần, chuyên nghiên cứu về tương tác chiến lược trong kinh doanh và chính trị.
Ông tốt nghiệp từ Đại học tổng hợp Texas-Austin và hiện đang làm chuyên gia tư vấn kinh tế tại ERS Group Inc - một tập đoàn chuyên tư vấn cho Chính phủ Mỹ và các đại công ty trong nhóm Fortune 500 trong các vấn đề liên quan tới cạnh tranh, lao động, tài chính, đầu tư và năng lượng.
Ông cũng là cố vấn cho Quỹ Nghiên cứu Biển Đông. Quỹ này được thành lập năm 2007. Mục đích của Quỹ là phổ biến ý thức và nâng cao kiến thức và khuyến khích, hỗ trợ nghiên cứu về tranh chấp Hoàng Sa, Trường Sa, mặt biển và thềm lục địa, chuẩn bị các chứng cứ lịch sử và pháp lý cho việc giải quyết tranh chấp sau này. Bằng con đường truyền thông và ngoại giao, vận động sự quan tâm và ủng hộ của dư luận quốc tế cho một giải pháp công bằng và hoà bình cho các tranh chấp chủ quyền ở Biển Đông.
31 Dec 2008
25 Dec 2008
Suy nghĩ khác về quan hệ Việt - Trung
Lưu Chính Huy
Gửi cho BBC từ Sài Gòn
Thời gian gần đây thái độ chống Trung Quốc dường như hiển hiện ngày càng nổi bật trong những câu chuyện của người Việt, thậm chí trên cả một số tờ báo chính thức (trước khi bài bị gỡ xuống).
Là một người Việt gốc Hoa, lớn lên và đang sống ở Sài Gòn, tôi cảm thấy cần có đôi lời nói lại với người Việt Nam, trong đó có không ít người là bạn của tôi.
Có một vài ý lớn tôi muốn đối thoại lại:
- Trung Quốc có phải là kẻ thù truyền kiếp của Việt Nam?
- Người Việt có quá dễ quên đóng góp của Trung Quốc cho Việt Nam?
- Mô hình phát triển của Trung Quốc là kém bền vững?
Kẻ thù truyền kiếp?
"Trung Quốc hăm he xâm lăng, Việt Nam bảo vệ chủ quyền lãnh thổ" hình như là mệnh đề chính trong nhiều đánh giá của người Việt về mối quan hệ mấy ngàn năm qua. Sử gia Hà Văn Tấn cho rằng Việt Nam là "dân tộc liên miên phải chống chiến tranh xâm lược".
Trong bài Mấy suy nghĩ về lịch sử Việt Nam và Tư tưởng Việt Nam (1984), ông Tấn còn nói "chủ nghĩa yêu nước là một kết tinh quan trọng và chủ yếu của lịch sử Việt Nam và tư tưởng Việt Nam". Ông không diễn giải ra, nhưng người ta hiểu chủ nghĩa yêu nước này có được là nhờ tinh thần chống ngoại xâm - chống "giặc" phương Bắc trước khi người Việt biết chống Pháp, chống Mỹ.
Mới nhất trong một lá thư đăng trên mạng, ông nhà văn Nguyễn Khắc Phục phán Trung Quốc là kẻ "mua chuộc, giả vờ ngọt nhạt, hữu hảo với những nơi xa, gây cảm tình, tạo đà để mưu lợi trong tương lai khi có cơ hội bành trướng, sắm vai anh hùng hảo hán, cứu khốn phò nguy, ra vẻ hào hiệp và nhân nghĩa, nhưng trắng trợn, trịch thượng, cậy mạnh hiếp yếu với những nước nhỏ hơn cạnh mình". Một quốc gia, nếu quả thực "đểu cáng" như thế, thì thực không xứng tồn tại trên cõi đời này.
Nhưng có thực quan hệ truyền thống Việt - Trung là quan hệ đấu tranh chống xâm lược hay không?
Thực tế, từ thế kỷ 10 đến khi Việt Nam độc lập năm 1945, hai nước chỉ đánh nhau năm lần: chiến tranh Lý - Tống 1075, Trần - Nguyên (tuy gọi là ba lần, nhưng thời gian cách nhau không nhiều, những người tham chiến lần đầu hầu hết cũng đánh lần ba, xem như có thể gọi là một: 1258, 1285, 1288), Minh - Hồ 1406, Minh - Lê (1427), Thanh - Tây Sơn 1789. 1000 năm, tổng cộng những năm binh lửa giữa hai nước là bao nhiêu?
Việt Nam không muốn nhận mình là phụ thuộc phương Bắc, nhưng chẳng phải Việt Nam đã bắt chước văn hóa, thể chể của các triều đại Trung Quốc?
Nó nói rằng mối quan hệ mang tính hữu hảo lớn hơn sự thừa nhận của nhiều người ngày nay.
Nếu gọi lịch sử Việt Nam là lịch sử của đấu tranh, thì nội chiến giữa người Việt mới kéo dài hơn nhiều, đặc biệt từ thế kỷ 16 với giao tranh Trịnh - Nguyễn kéo dài cả hai thế kỷ.
Theo tôi, quan hệ truyền thống Việt - Trung 1000 năm qua là quan hệ của bằng hữu và thầy trò.
Việt Nam không muốn nhận mình là phụ thuộc phương Bắc (nên vẽ ra huyền thoại Hùng Vương 18 đời), nhưng chẳng phải Việt Nam đã bắt chước văn hóa, thể chể của các triều đại Trung Quốc đó sao?
Trung Quốc giúp đỡ
Khác với Tổng Bí thư Lê Duẩn, người phá vỡ quan hệ hữu nghị từ sau 1975, để lại hậu quả đến ngày nay, Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh, lúc sinh thời, đã luôn đề cao tình thân Trung Việt.
Không có Trung Quốc công nhận Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa, đã chắc gì Liên Xô và khối Cộng sản công nhận và giúp đỡ Việt Nam chống Pháp, chống Mỹ - nghĩa là chắc gì có Việt Nam như hôm nay?
Không có tướng Trần Canh và đoàn cố vấn, đã chắc gì có chiến thắng biên giới, khai thông đường giao thông Trung - Việt năm 1950? Không có tài năng của Tướng Vi Quốc Thanh, đã chắc Việt Nam đánh thắng Điện Biên Phủ?
Mối quan hệ "hai nước anh em, đồng chí" còn thể hiện qua sự viện trợ khẳng khái, nhiệt tâm của Trung Quốc trong cuộc kháng chiến chống Mỹ. Những ai lớn lên ở miền Bắc thời đánh Mỹ chắc đều thấu hiểu ý nghĩa Trung Quốc là "người bạn chiến đấu kiên cường và anh em ruột thịt". Thời đó, nói môi hở răng lạnh là tình cảm thật, chứ không phải tuyên truyền đâu.
Hồ Chí Minh và Mao Trạch Đông
Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh gắn bó với Trung Quốc
Nếu giới trẻ ngày hôm nay không biết những điều đó, không nghe tới "khai quốc công thần" của miền Bắc là Vi Quốc Thanh, thì đó là vì bộ máy tuyên truyền của Việt Nam từ sau 1975 đã lờ tịt mối quan hệ đồng cam cộng khổ ngày nào, thậm chí đưa cả Trung Quốc vào Hiến pháp, gọi là kẻ thù số một. Cư xử với người có ơn như thế, chắc người Việt không thiếu từ ngữ để diễn đạt, phải không?
Điều đáng buồn là hình như nhiều người Việt thiếu sự tự vấn, nhìn thẳng sự thật. Thậm chí chống Trung Quốc hình như đang là mốt với nhiều người hiện nay. Nhưng thái độ đó có khác gì thái độ của tập đoàn Lê Duẩn - Lê Đức Thọ, những người mà cũng bị Việt Nam hôm nay phê phán hoặc không muốn nhắc tới nhiều.
Trung Quốc và Mỹ
Người Việt thực dụng, nếu là thế cũng chả sao nếu như sự thực dụng ấy dẫn tới lợi ích quốc gia.
Nhiều người Việt đang lớn tiếng kêu gọi tránh xa Trung Quốc, bắt tay với Mỹ. Chuyến thăm Mỹ của Thủ tướng Nguyễn Tấn Dũng nghe nói đã đưa quan hệ hai nước lên tầm chiến lược.
Nhà "dân chủ" Nguyễn Thanh Giang, người hình như rất ghét Trung Quốc, thậm chí còn kêu gọi Trung Quốc xâm lược Việt Nam sớm. Vì sao? "Trung Quốc khởi binh đánh Việt Nam sẽ trao cho Hoa Kỳ cơ hội ngàn năm có một để ra tay hủy diệt tiềm năng quân sự và kinh tế của Trung Quốc, đẩy lùi một đại hiểm họa đang treo trước mắt nhân loại."
Nhiều người cũng thích dẫn ra các nghiên cứu, bình luận cho rằng sự phát triển của Trung Quốc là không bền vững, là sớm muộn cũng suy sụp.
Nhưng có thực Hoa Kỳ là cứu cánh cho sự phát triển của Việt Nam, và mô hình Trung Quốc là bất ổn tiềm tàng? Vậy mời bạn hãy đọc bài viết mới đây, The Great Unraveling, của Thomas Friedman (tác giả của Thế giới là phẳng, mà người Việt cũng rất thích trích dẫn).
Sàn chứng khoán Thượng Hải
Quá sớm nếu ai đó bĩu môi, coi chẳng ra gì hệ thống hài hòa mà Trung Quốc đang theo đuổi
Ông viết: "Thật đau lòng vì Trung Quốc, theo nhiều cách, có vẻ lại ổn định hơn Hoa Kỳ ngày nay, với chiến lược rõ ràng hơn để vượt khủng hoảng. Và mặc dù hai nước trông có vẻ giống nhau hơn, hai nước đang đi theo lộ trình lịch sử khác nhau. Trung Quốc điên rồ trong thập kỷ 1970 vì Cách mạng Văn hóa, và chỉ sau cái chết của Mao và sự thăng tiến của Đặng nước này mới sửa mình, dần tiến tới kinh tế thị trường."
"Nhưng trong khi chủ nghĩa tư bản đã cứu Trung Quốc, sự chấm dứt của chủ nghĩa cộng sản làm Mỹ mất thăng bằng. Chúng ta để mất hai đối thủ ý thức hệ lớn nhất - Bắc Kinh và Moscow. Ai nấy đều cần có đối thủ để giữ kỷ luật. Nhưng một khi chủ nghĩa tư bản Mỹ không còn phải lo chủ nghĩa cộng sản, có vẻ nó đã trở nên điên loạn."
Khủng hoảng kinh tế thế giới hiện thời xảy ra chính vì lòng tham không đáy của các ông chủ tư bản, trong đó dĩ nhiên có tư bản Mỹ. Thật bi hài khi Friedman, người cổ súy cho toàn cầu hóa (Mỹ hóa), nay phải thừa nhận Trung Quốc "có vẻ lại ổn định hơn" Hoa Kỳ.
Như thế, có buồn cười không khi bắt chước Mỹ lại được người Việt xem là tốt, quên khuấy máu lửa quê hương 30 năm trước, quên khuấy nghịch cảnh châu Mỹ Latin, sân sau của Washington?
Có thể còn quá sớm để nói về sự kết liễu của mô hình tự do kinh tế - dân chủ chính trị của Mỹ. Nhưng chắc chắc cũng quá sớm nếu ai đó bĩu môi, coi chẳng ra gì hệ thống hài hòa mà Trung Quốc đang theo đuổi.
Tóm lại, điều tôi muốn nói là quan hệ Trung - Việt là quan hệ của những người bạn, tuy đôi khi xích mích nhưng gắn bó bởi nền văn hóa và lịch sử giao hảo lâu đời.
Tranh cãi ở Biển Đông là trở ngại ngoại giao lớn nhất, nhưng không nên vì thế mà vẽ ra "mối đe dọa Trung Quốc" của Việt Nam. Mô hình phát triển của Trung Quốc đã được Việt Nam học hỏi và Trung Quốc còn có thể đem lại nhiều lợi ích cho công cuộc phát triển của Việt Nam.
Gửi cho BBC từ Sài Gòn
Thời gian gần đây thái độ chống Trung Quốc dường như hiển hiện ngày càng nổi bật trong những câu chuyện của người Việt, thậm chí trên cả một số tờ báo chính thức (trước khi bài bị gỡ xuống).
Là một người Việt gốc Hoa, lớn lên và đang sống ở Sài Gòn, tôi cảm thấy cần có đôi lời nói lại với người Việt Nam, trong đó có không ít người là bạn của tôi.
Có một vài ý lớn tôi muốn đối thoại lại:
- Trung Quốc có phải là kẻ thù truyền kiếp của Việt Nam?
- Người Việt có quá dễ quên đóng góp của Trung Quốc cho Việt Nam?
- Mô hình phát triển của Trung Quốc là kém bền vững?
Kẻ thù truyền kiếp?
"Trung Quốc hăm he xâm lăng, Việt Nam bảo vệ chủ quyền lãnh thổ" hình như là mệnh đề chính trong nhiều đánh giá của người Việt về mối quan hệ mấy ngàn năm qua. Sử gia Hà Văn Tấn cho rằng Việt Nam là "dân tộc liên miên phải chống chiến tranh xâm lược".
Trong bài Mấy suy nghĩ về lịch sử Việt Nam và Tư tưởng Việt Nam (1984), ông Tấn còn nói "chủ nghĩa yêu nước là một kết tinh quan trọng và chủ yếu của lịch sử Việt Nam và tư tưởng Việt Nam". Ông không diễn giải ra, nhưng người ta hiểu chủ nghĩa yêu nước này có được là nhờ tinh thần chống ngoại xâm - chống "giặc" phương Bắc trước khi người Việt biết chống Pháp, chống Mỹ.
Mới nhất trong một lá thư đăng trên mạng, ông nhà văn Nguyễn Khắc Phục phán Trung Quốc là kẻ "mua chuộc, giả vờ ngọt nhạt, hữu hảo với những nơi xa, gây cảm tình, tạo đà để mưu lợi trong tương lai khi có cơ hội bành trướng, sắm vai anh hùng hảo hán, cứu khốn phò nguy, ra vẻ hào hiệp và nhân nghĩa, nhưng trắng trợn, trịch thượng, cậy mạnh hiếp yếu với những nước nhỏ hơn cạnh mình". Một quốc gia, nếu quả thực "đểu cáng" như thế, thì thực không xứng tồn tại trên cõi đời này.
Nhưng có thực quan hệ truyền thống Việt - Trung là quan hệ đấu tranh chống xâm lược hay không?
Thực tế, từ thế kỷ 10 đến khi Việt Nam độc lập năm 1945, hai nước chỉ đánh nhau năm lần: chiến tranh Lý - Tống 1075, Trần - Nguyên (tuy gọi là ba lần, nhưng thời gian cách nhau không nhiều, những người tham chiến lần đầu hầu hết cũng đánh lần ba, xem như có thể gọi là một: 1258, 1285, 1288), Minh - Hồ 1406, Minh - Lê (1427), Thanh - Tây Sơn 1789. 1000 năm, tổng cộng những năm binh lửa giữa hai nước là bao nhiêu?
Việt Nam không muốn nhận mình là phụ thuộc phương Bắc, nhưng chẳng phải Việt Nam đã bắt chước văn hóa, thể chể của các triều đại Trung Quốc?
Nó nói rằng mối quan hệ mang tính hữu hảo lớn hơn sự thừa nhận của nhiều người ngày nay.
Nếu gọi lịch sử Việt Nam là lịch sử của đấu tranh, thì nội chiến giữa người Việt mới kéo dài hơn nhiều, đặc biệt từ thế kỷ 16 với giao tranh Trịnh - Nguyễn kéo dài cả hai thế kỷ.
Theo tôi, quan hệ truyền thống Việt - Trung 1000 năm qua là quan hệ của bằng hữu và thầy trò.
Việt Nam không muốn nhận mình là phụ thuộc phương Bắc (nên vẽ ra huyền thoại Hùng Vương 18 đời), nhưng chẳng phải Việt Nam đã bắt chước văn hóa, thể chể của các triều đại Trung Quốc đó sao?
Trung Quốc giúp đỡ
Khác với Tổng Bí thư Lê Duẩn, người phá vỡ quan hệ hữu nghị từ sau 1975, để lại hậu quả đến ngày nay, Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh, lúc sinh thời, đã luôn đề cao tình thân Trung Việt.
Không có Trung Quốc công nhận Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa, đã chắc gì Liên Xô và khối Cộng sản công nhận và giúp đỡ Việt Nam chống Pháp, chống Mỹ - nghĩa là chắc gì có Việt Nam như hôm nay?
Không có tướng Trần Canh và đoàn cố vấn, đã chắc gì có chiến thắng biên giới, khai thông đường giao thông Trung - Việt năm 1950? Không có tài năng của Tướng Vi Quốc Thanh, đã chắc Việt Nam đánh thắng Điện Biên Phủ?
Mối quan hệ "hai nước anh em, đồng chí" còn thể hiện qua sự viện trợ khẳng khái, nhiệt tâm của Trung Quốc trong cuộc kháng chiến chống Mỹ. Những ai lớn lên ở miền Bắc thời đánh Mỹ chắc đều thấu hiểu ý nghĩa Trung Quốc là "người bạn chiến đấu kiên cường và anh em ruột thịt". Thời đó, nói môi hở răng lạnh là tình cảm thật, chứ không phải tuyên truyền đâu.
Hồ Chí Minh và Mao Trạch Đông
Chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh gắn bó với Trung Quốc
Nếu giới trẻ ngày hôm nay không biết những điều đó, không nghe tới "khai quốc công thần" của miền Bắc là Vi Quốc Thanh, thì đó là vì bộ máy tuyên truyền của Việt Nam từ sau 1975 đã lờ tịt mối quan hệ đồng cam cộng khổ ngày nào, thậm chí đưa cả Trung Quốc vào Hiến pháp, gọi là kẻ thù số một. Cư xử với người có ơn như thế, chắc người Việt không thiếu từ ngữ để diễn đạt, phải không?
Điều đáng buồn là hình như nhiều người Việt thiếu sự tự vấn, nhìn thẳng sự thật. Thậm chí chống Trung Quốc hình như đang là mốt với nhiều người hiện nay. Nhưng thái độ đó có khác gì thái độ của tập đoàn Lê Duẩn - Lê Đức Thọ, những người mà cũng bị Việt Nam hôm nay phê phán hoặc không muốn nhắc tới nhiều.
Trung Quốc và Mỹ
Người Việt thực dụng, nếu là thế cũng chả sao nếu như sự thực dụng ấy dẫn tới lợi ích quốc gia.
Nhiều người Việt đang lớn tiếng kêu gọi tránh xa Trung Quốc, bắt tay với Mỹ. Chuyến thăm Mỹ của Thủ tướng Nguyễn Tấn Dũng nghe nói đã đưa quan hệ hai nước lên tầm chiến lược.
Nhà "dân chủ" Nguyễn Thanh Giang, người hình như rất ghét Trung Quốc, thậm chí còn kêu gọi Trung Quốc xâm lược Việt Nam sớm. Vì sao? "Trung Quốc khởi binh đánh Việt Nam sẽ trao cho Hoa Kỳ cơ hội ngàn năm có một để ra tay hủy diệt tiềm năng quân sự và kinh tế của Trung Quốc, đẩy lùi một đại hiểm họa đang treo trước mắt nhân loại."
Nhiều người cũng thích dẫn ra các nghiên cứu, bình luận cho rằng sự phát triển của Trung Quốc là không bền vững, là sớm muộn cũng suy sụp.
Nhưng có thực Hoa Kỳ là cứu cánh cho sự phát triển của Việt Nam, và mô hình Trung Quốc là bất ổn tiềm tàng? Vậy mời bạn hãy đọc bài viết mới đây, The Great Unraveling, của Thomas Friedman (tác giả của Thế giới là phẳng, mà người Việt cũng rất thích trích dẫn).
Sàn chứng khoán Thượng Hải
Quá sớm nếu ai đó bĩu môi, coi chẳng ra gì hệ thống hài hòa mà Trung Quốc đang theo đuổi
Ông viết: "Thật đau lòng vì Trung Quốc, theo nhiều cách, có vẻ lại ổn định hơn Hoa Kỳ ngày nay, với chiến lược rõ ràng hơn để vượt khủng hoảng. Và mặc dù hai nước trông có vẻ giống nhau hơn, hai nước đang đi theo lộ trình lịch sử khác nhau. Trung Quốc điên rồ trong thập kỷ 1970 vì Cách mạng Văn hóa, và chỉ sau cái chết của Mao và sự thăng tiến của Đặng nước này mới sửa mình, dần tiến tới kinh tế thị trường."
"Nhưng trong khi chủ nghĩa tư bản đã cứu Trung Quốc, sự chấm dứt của chủ nghĩa cộng sản làm Mỹ mất thăng bằng. Chúng ta để mất hai đối thủ ý thức hệ lớn nhất - Bắc Kinh và Moscow. Ai nấy đều cần có đối thủ để giữ kỷ luật. Nhưng một khi chủ nghĩa tư bản Mỹ không còn phải lo chủ nghĩa cộng sản, có vẻ nó đã trở nên điên loạn."
Khủng hoảng kinh tế thế giới hiện thời xảy ra chính vì lòng tham không đáy của các ông chủ tư bản, trong đó dĩ nhiên có tư bản Mỹ. Thật bi hài khi Friedman, người cổ súy cho toàn cầu hóa (Mỹ hóa), nay phải thừa nhận Trung Quốc "có vẻ lại ổn định hơn" Hoa Kỳ.
Như thế, có buồn cười không khi bắt chước Mỹ lại được người Việt xem là tốt, quên khuấy máu lửa quê hương 30 năm trước, quên khuấy nghịch cảnh châu Mỹ Latin, sân sau của Washington?
Có thể còn quá sớm để nói về sự kết liễu của mô hình tự do kinh tế - dân chủ chính trị của Mỹ. Nhưng chắc chắc cũng quá sớm nếu ai đó bĩu môi, coi chẳng ra gì hệ thống hài hòa mà Trung Quốc đang theo đuổi.
Tóm lại, điều tôi muốn nói là quan hệ Trung - Việt là quan hệ của những người bạn, tuy đôi khi xích mích nhưng gắn bó bởi nền văn hóa và lịch sử giao hảo lâu đời.
Tranh cãi ở Biển Đông là trở ngại ngoại giao lớn nhất, nhưng không nên vì thế mà vẽ ra "mối đe dọa Trung Quốc" của Việt Nam. Mô hình phát triển của Trung Quốc đã được Việt Nam học hỏi và Trung Quốc còn có thể đem lại nhiều lợi ích cho công cuộc phát triển của Việt Nam.
The Great Unraveling
The stranger, a Western businessman, slipped into the chair next to me at an Asia Society lunch here in Hong Kong and asked me a question that I can honestly say I’ve never been asked before: “So, just how corrupt is America?”
His question was occasioned by the arrest of the Wall Street money manager Bernard Madoff on charges of running a Ponzi scheme that bilked investors out of billions of dollars, but it wasn’t only that. It’s the whole bloody mess coming out of Wall Street — the financial center that Hong Kong moneymen had always looked up to. How could it be, they wonder, that such brand names as Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers and A.I.G. could turn out to have such feet of clay? Where, they wonder, was our Securities and Exchange Commission and the high standards that we had preached to them all these years?
One of Hong Kong’s most-respected bankers, who asked not to be identified, told me that the U.S.-owned investment company where he works made a mint in the last decade cleaning up sick Asian banks. They did so by importing the best U.S. practices, particularly the principles of “know thy customers” and strict risk controls. But now, he asked, who is there to look to for exemplary leadership?
“Previously, there was America,” he said. “American investors were supposed to know better, and now America itself is in trouble. Whom do they sell their banks to? It is hard for America to take its own medicine that it prescribed successfully for others. There is no doctor anymore. The doctor himself is sick.”
I have no sympathy for Madoff. But the fact is, his alleged Ponzi scheme was only slightly more outrageous than the “legal” scheme that Wall Street was running, fueled by cheap credit, low standards and high greed. What do you call giving a worker who makes only $14,000 a year a nothing-down and nothing-to-pay-for-two-years mortgage to buy a $750,000 home, and then bundling that mortgage with 100 others into bonds — which Moody’s or Standard & Poors rate AAA — and then selling them to banks and pension funds the world over? That is what our financial industry was doing. If that isn’t a pyramid scheme, what is?
Far from being built on best practices, this legal Ponzi scheme was built on the mortgage brokers, bond bundlers, rating agencies, bond sellers and homeowners all working on the I.B.G. principle: “I’ll be gone” when the payments come due or the mortgage has to be renegotiated.
It is both eye-opening and depressing to look at our banking crisis from China. It is eye-opening because it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the U.S. and China are becoming two countries, one system.
How so? Easy, in the wake of our massive bank bailout, one can now look at China and America and say: “Well, China has a big-state-owned banking sector, next to a private one, and America now has a big state-owned banking sector next to a private one. China has big state-owned industries, alongside private ones, and once Washington bails out Detroit, America will have a big state-owned industry next to private ones.”
Yes, an exaggeration to be sure, but the truth is the differences are starting to blur. For two decades, a parade of U.S. officials came to China and lectured Beijing on the necessity of privatizing its banks, said Qu Hongbin, the chief economist for China at HSBC. “So, slowly we did that, and now, all of a sudden, we see everybody else nationalizing their banks.”
It’s depressing because China in many ways feels more stable than America today, with a clearer strategy for working through this crisis. And while the two countries are looking more alike, they appear to be on very different historical trajectories. China went crazy in the 1970s, with its Cultural Revolution, and only after the death of Mao and the rise of Deng Xiaoping has it managed to right itself, gradually moving to a market economy.
But while capitalism has saved China, the end of communism seems to have slightly unhinged America. We lost our two biggest ideological competitors — Beijing and Moscow. Everyone needs a competitor. It keeps you disciplined. But once American capitalism no longer had to worry about communism, it seems to have gone crazy. Investment banks and hedge funds were leveraging themselves at crazy levels, paying themselves crazy salaries and, most of all, inventing financial instruments that completely disconnected the ultimate lenders from the original borrowers, and left no one accountable. “The collapse of communism pushed China to the center and [America] to the extreme,” said Ben Simpfendorfer, chief China economist at Royal Bank of Scotland.
The Madoff affair is the cherry on top of a national breakdown in financial propriety, regulations and common sense. Which is why we don’t just need a financial bailout; we need an ethical bailout. We need to re-establish the core balance between our markets, ethics and regulations. I don’t want to kill the animal spirits that necessarily drive capitalism — but I don’t want to be eaten by them either.
Maureen Dowd is off today.
His question was occasioned by the arrest of the Wall Street money manager Bernard Madoff on charges of running a Ponzi scheme that bilked investors out of billions of dollars, but it wasn’t only that. It’s the whole bloody mess coming out of Wall Street — the financial center that Hong Kong moneymen had always looked up to. How could it be, they wonder, that such brand names as Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers and A.I.G. could turn out to have such feet of clay? Where, they wonder, was our Securities and Exchange Commission and the high standards that we had preached to them all these years?
One of Hong Kong’s most-respected bankers, who asked not to be identified, told me that the U.S.-owned investment company where he works made a mint in the last decade cleaning up sick Asian banks. They did so by importing the best U.S. practices, particularly the principles of “know thy customers” and strict risk controls. But now, he asked, who is there to look to for exemplary leadership?
“Previously, there was America,” he said. “American investors were supposed to know better, and now America itself is in trouble. Whom do they sell their banks to? It is hard for America to take its own medicine that it prescribed successfully for others. There is no doctor anymore. The doctor himself is sick.”
I have no sympathy for Madoff. But the fact is, his alleged Ponzi scheme was only slightly more outrageous than the “legal” scheme that Wall Street was running, fueled by cheap credit, low standards and high greed. What do you call giving a worker who makes only $14,000 a year a nothing-down and nothing-to-pay-for-two-years mortgage to buy a $750,000 home, and then bundling that mortgage with 100 others into bonds — which Moody’s or Standard & Poors rate AAA — and then selling them to banks and pension funds the world over? That is what our financial industry was doing. If that isn’t a pyramid scheme, what is?
Far from being built on best practices, this legal Ponzi scheme was built on the mortgage brokers, bond bundlers, rating agencies, bond sellers and homeowners all working on the I.B.G. principle: “I’ll be gone” when the payments come due or the mortgage has to be renegotiated.
It is both eye-opening and depressing to look at our banking crisis from China. It is eye-opening because it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the U.S. and China are becoming two countries, one system.
How so? Easy, in the wake of our massive bank bailout, one can now look at China and America and say: “Well, China has a big-state-owned banking sector, next to a private one, and America now has a big state-owned banking sector next to a private one. China has big state-owned industries, alongside private ones, and once Washington bails out Detroit, America will have a big state-owned industry next to private ones.”
Yes, an exaggeration to be sure, but the truth is the differences are starting to blur. For two decades, a parade of U.S. officials came to China and lectured Beijing on the necessity of privatizing its banks, said Qu Hongbin, the chief economist for China at HSBC. “So, slowly we did that, and now, all of a sudden, we see everybody else nationalizing their banks.”
It’s depressing because China in many ways feels more stable than America today, with a clearer strategy for working through this crisis. And while the two countries are looking more alike, they appear to be on very different historical trajectories. China went crazy in the 1970s, with its Cultural Revolution, and only after the death of Mao and the rise of Deng Xiaoping has it managed to right itself, gradually moving to a market economy.
But while capitalism has saved China, the end of communism seems to have slightly unhinged America. We lost our two biggest ideological competitors — Beijing and Moscow. Everyone needs a competitor. It keeps you disciplined. But once American capitalism no longer had to worry about communism, it seems to have gone crazy. Investment banks and hedge funds were leveraging themselves at crazy levels, paying themselves crazy salaries and, most of all, inventing financial instruments that completely disconnected the ultimate lenders from the original borrowers, and left no one accountable. “The collapse of communism pushed China to the center and [America] to the extreme,” said Ben Simpfendorfer, chief China economist at Royal Bank of Scotland.
The Madoff affair is the cherry on top of a national breakdown in financial propriety, regulations and common sense. Which is why we don’t just need a financial bailout; we need an ethical bailout. We need to re-establish the core balance between our markets, ethics and regulations. I don’t want to kill the animal spirits that necessarily drive capitalism — but I don’t want to be eaten by them either.
Maureen Dowd is off today.
Hạn chế ngân sách mềm, đói đầu tư và trò chơi Ponzi
Đâu là nguyên nhân dẫn đến tình trạng đầu tư đầy rủi ro và hiệu quả sản xuất kinh doanh thấp của các tổng công ty nhà nước?
Nhà kinh tế học János Kornai người Hungari, từ những năm 1975-1980, đã chỉ ra nguyên nhân chính khiến các nền kinh tế kế hoạch hóa tập trung sản xuất không có hiệu quả, lâm vào tình trạng thiếu thốn triền miên và siêu lạm phát chính là hạn chế ngân sách mềm (soft budget constraints) đối với các doanh nghiệp nhà nước và đói đầu tư (investment hunger) của các doanh nghiệp này.
Hạn chế ngân sách mềm có nghĩa là nhà nước thông qua trợ cấp, miễn giảm thuế, ấn định giá đầu vào, ấn định giá đầu ra, tín dụng ưu đãi hoặc tín chấp... để giúp tạo ra tăng trưởng “giả tạo” cho các doanh nghiệp nhà nước (tăng trưởng của doanh nghiệp không hề liên quan đến tình hình tài chính ở hiện tại và tương lai của doanh nghiệp) và cứu vớt các doanh nghiệp này khỏi thua lỗ và phá sản với bất kỳ giá nào.
Các lãnh đạo của doanh nghiệp không có động lực để thay đổi công nghệ và sáng tạo để đa dạng sản phẩm, nâng cao chất lượng và đầu tư ngược dòng vào các sản phẩm và dịch vụ đầu vào cho sản xuất đòi hỏi nhiều công sức, thời gian đầu tư lâu và thu lợi chậm.
Thay vì đó, để đạt được các kế hoạch như cấp quản lý trên đề ra, các doanh nghiệp này đầu tư liên tục vào những nhà máy và công nghệ hiện có để tăng sản xuất một số ít các sản phẩm cuối cùng. Các kế hoạch lại thường viển vông để theo đuổi mục tiêu công nghiệp hóa và trực tiếp giảm tình trạng thiếu thốn trong nền kinh tế. Tình trạng thiếu thốn càng gay gắt, các doanh nghiệp càng có lý do để xin nhà nước nhiều vốn để đầu tư, điều mà Kornai gọi là “đói đầu tư”.
Bơm vốn và tín dụng
Theo IMF, trong năm 2005 và 2006, Nhà nước đã bảo lãnh cho phát hành trái phiếu doanh nghiệp trong nước trị giá khoảng 1.200 tỉ đồng cho Tổng công ty Điện lực (EVN) và Tập đoàn Dầu khí Việt Nam (Petro Vietnam). Việc bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu này đã được thực hiện cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty khác như Vinashin.
Đáng nói là, những trái phiếu này lại thường được mua bởi chính các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước khi mà lợi tức của nó rất thấp. Trong các chuyến viếng thăm chính thức nước ngoài, Chính phủ “làm chứng” để các tổ chức tài chính nước ngoài bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu ra nước ngoài, tạo nguồn vốn cho các tổng công ty.
Ví dụ, Ngân hàng Credit Suisse (Thụy Sỹ), Ngân hàng BNP (Pháp) và Ngân hàng Deutsche Bank (Đức) đã đồng ý đứng ra bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu tạo nguồn vốn cho Tập đoàn Công nghiệp Tàu thủy Việt Nam - Vinashin) (750 triệu USD trái phiếu quốc tế) và Tổng công ty Dệt may Việt Nam - Vinatex (dự kiến 500 triệu USD trái phiếu doanh nghiệp ra thị trường quốc tế).
Chính phủ cũng bảo lãnh các hợp đồng tín dụng giữa các ngân hàng nước ngoài với các tổng công ty. Credit Suisse đã đồng ý cho Vinashin vay 600 triệu USD và sau đó là cam kết cho vay đến 1 tỉ USD cho Vinashin và cho Vinalines để mua tàu của Vinashin.
Deutsche Bank cũng đồng ý cấp các khoản tín dụng cho Vinashin và Vinatex trong chuyến công du của Thủ tướng đến Đức vào tháng 3/2008. Chính phủ Ba Lan (70 triệu USD và 300 triệu USD) và Chính phủ Trung Quốc (100 triệu USD) cũng đồng ý các khoản tín dụng ưu đãi cho Vinashin dưới sự bảo lãnh của Chính phủ.
Ngân hàng Phát triển (VBD), Ngân hàng Nông nghiệp và Phát triển nông thôn (Agribank) và các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước, Vietcombank, Vietinbank và BIDV, vẫn tiếp tục được coi là các công cụ để Nhà nước bơm thêm tín dụng cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty.
Những hình thức bắt buộc cho vay vượt ngoài mức an toàn tín dụng đã và đang diễn ra dưới các cách khác nhau cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty khác. Vinashin có được hợp đồng đóng tàu 53.000 tấn của Công ty Graig chính là nhờ yêu cầu của Chính phủ đối với bốn ngân hàng nhà nước bảo lãnh tiền đặt cọc của Graig, đôi khi vượt quá mức an toàn cho ngân hàng.
Trong tháng 5/2007, ngay sau khi Tổng công ty Thép (VSC) được chuyển đổi sang mô hình mẹ con thì Vietcombank cũng bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu trong nước trị giá 400 tỉ đồng với cam kết sẽ mua một phần hoặc tất cả số trái phiếu và chuyển đủ tiền cho VSC đúng thời hạn.
Không rõ đây có phải là cách thức VSC vay thêm tiền của Vietcombank vượt quá định mức an toàn khi mà nó vẫn chưa có khả năng trả nợ hết số nợ 51,578 triệu USD (trong tổng nợ 119,58 triệu USD từ cả VBD và các nguồn khác) vào năm 2002 để xây nhà máy thép tấm lá Phú Mỹ.
Trong các báo cáo tài chính của các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước này vẫn tồn tại một khoản mục là “cho vay chỉ định và theo kế hoạch của Nhà nước”, ngầm hiểu là cho các dự án quốc gia do các tổng công ty nhà nước quản lý.
Hỗ trợ dưới hình thức khác
Có thể phân loại các tập đoàn và tổng công ty thành ba nhóm.
Nhóm thứ nhất là các tổng công ty trong các lĩnh vực được bảo hộ để thay thế nhập khẩu. Các công ty này như VSC, Tổng công ty Hóa chất, Tổng công ty Xi măng, Tổng công ty Giấy đã và đang được bảo hộ bằng hàng rào phi thuế và thuế quan và trợ cấp bằng ấn định giá đầu vào. Cho đến gần đây họ được độc quyền và được bảo hộ nên rất ít áp lực cạnh tranh. Các tổng công ty này đã và đang mắc phải căn bệnh “đói đầu tư”.
Họ đã đầu tư quá nhiều vào sản xuất với công nghệ lạc hậu, các loại sản phẩm cuối cùng không có chất lượng cao, trong khi lại rất ít sản xuất các sản phẩm đầu vào và các sản phẩm cuối cùng chất lượng tốt. Công nghệ lạc hậu khiến chi phí sản xuất cao, hao tổn nhiều tài nguyên và ô nhiễm môi trường.
Họ thất bại trong việc đạt được hiệu quả kinh tế nhờ quy mô (economies of scale) mà Chính phủ mong muốn khi quyết định hình thành nên họ. Mặc dù được gọi là tập đoàn và tổng công ty, nhưng họ bao gồm những nhà máy, phân xưởng và nông trường với quy mô nhỏ so với tiêu chuẩn của ngành, nằm rải rác ở các tỉnh trải dài đất nước. Các nơi sản xuất này lại không gần với vùng nguyên liệu, hoặc cảng biển để vận chuyển có hiệu quả các đầu vào cho sản xuất và sản phẩm cuối cùng đi tiêu thụ.
Một nhóm khác là những tổng công ty có đặc quyền nắm giữ tài nguyên quốc gia. Họ nắm các loại tài nguyên trong lòng đất như dầu lửa (Petro Vietnam), than đá và các khoáng sản (Vinacomin). Hay họ nắm giữ rất nhiều đất rừng và cao nguyên như Tập đoàn Cao su (VRC) hoặc rất nhiều đất đai và cảng biển dọc theo chiều dài đất nước như Vinashin. Họ thực sự độc quyền và củng cố được quyền lực của mình trong nền kinh tế không phải bằng việc tăng giá trị sản phẩm làm ra để phục vụ các ngành trong nước và xuất khẩu mà dựa vào đặc quyền sử dụng tài nguyên.
Nhóm cuối cùng là những tổng công ty sản xuất các sản phẩm hướng vào xuất khẩu như Vinatex, Tổng công ty Da giày hay Tổng công ty Thủy sản. Những tổng công ty này phải cạnh tranh nhiều hơn với các công ty tư nhân và doanh nghiệp nước ngoài, không phải tại thị trường trong nước mà để nhận đơn đặt hàng xuất khẩu. Các tổng công ty này vẫn thực hiện các hợp đồng gia công là chủ yếu và không thu được nhiều giá trị gia tăng do không tự túc được đầu vào hoặc do không có kênh phân phối đến khách hàng cuối cùng ở nước ngoài.
Ngoài ra, trong cuộc cạnh tranh họ đã tỏ ra là kém hiệu quả hơn các doanh nghiệp tư nhân và nước ngoài. Vinatex đặc biệt trong nhóm nhận được rất nhiều ưu đãi xuất khẩu và tín dụng để thực hiện chương trình tăng tỷ lệ nội địa hóa thông qua chương trình 1 tỉ mét vải, nhưng kết quả là hết sức khiêm tốn so với những nỗ lực của khu vực doanh nghiệp nước ngoài và tư nhân.
Việc chuyển đổi các tổng công ty này theo mô hình mẹ con không hề làm tăng hiệu quả kinh tế nhờ quy mô vì quy mô của công ty mẹ cũng như các doanh nghiệp thành viên không được mở rộng, vẫn phân tán và nhỏ lẻ. Việc cổ phần hóa đang tăng thêm nguồn vốn cho các tổng công ty và tăng thêm đôi chút quyền tự chủ cho lãnh đạo các tổng công ty. Nhưng nhân sự trong ban lãnh đạo của các tổng công ty thì lại không thay đổi.
Việc tăng thêm quyền hạn cho họ, đặc biệt là việc được phép đa dạng hóa các lĩnh vực sản xuất kinh doanh kết hợp với việc Chính phủ tiếp tục giúp họ không có hạn chế ngân sách đang dẫn đến việc họ tiếp tục “đói đầu tư” để đầu tư không có hiệu quả hoặc mong muốn chuyển mình thành những định chế tài chính nhiều hơn là chuyên vào lĩnh vực sản xuất chính của họ.
Với lý do Việt Nam đang thiếu gần nửa năng lực về sản xuất phôi thép và thiếu hoàn toàn năng lực sản xuất thép tấm lá, cả Vinashin, VSC, GERUCO và một số tổng công ty nhà nước cấp tỉnh đang liên doanh với các công ty nước ngoài để thực hiện các dự án liên hợp thép khổng lồ từ 1 tỉ đến gần 10 tỉ USD (nếu tính cả các dự án 100% FDI thì lên đến gần 10 dự án) bất chấp rất nhiều ý kiến chuyên gia về nguy cơ thừa công suất, thiếu quan tâm đến khả năng cung cấp các đầu vào điện và quặng sắt cho tất cả các dự án, mức độ ô nhiễm môi trường và năng lực tài chính và công nghệ của các đối tác đầu tư để có thể thực sự hoàn thành được các dự án.
Câu hỏi đặt ra là liệu các doanh nghiệp nước ngoài có đang dựa vào cam kết tiếp tục bảo hộ ngành thép trong nước của Chính phủ trong chiến lược phát triển ngành thép 2007-2015 và vào vị thế của các tập đoàn nhà nước để thu lợi cho mình. Hơn thế, VSC cũng đang sử dụng nguồn vốn từ cổ phần hóa và từ “hạn chế ngân sách mềm” để đầu tư vào các dự án quy mô nhỏ.
Tương tự, với mong muốn trở thành nước đứng đầu thế giới về đóng tàu, Vinashin đang huy động số vốn 3,8 tỉ USD để đầu tư đồng loạt vào 17 nhà máy đóng tàu, sáu khu công nghiệp đóng tàu và bảy tổ hợp đóng tàu dọc theo bờ biển của Việt Nam (họ có tổng cộng 70 dự án đang thực hiện).
Vấn đề nổi cộm mà nhiều chuyên gia bình luận về chiến lược đầu tư của Vinashin là liệu có nên đầu tư quá nhiều vào ngành này khi mà tỷ suất lợi nhuận rất thấp (số liệu cho ba công ty đóng tàu lớn nhất của Việt Nam là dưới 1%) và rủi ro lỗ do chênh lệch lớn giá nguyên liệu đầu vào và giá tàu giữa lúc ký hợp đồng và giao tàu.
Có thể những đầu tư này đang tạo ra tăng trưởng kinh tế trong giai đoạn hiện tại, nhưng là một sự lãng phí nguồn vốn khan hiếm trong dài hạn.
Lấy nợ nuôi nợ
Vấn đề của các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước hiện nay không chỉ là “đói đầu tư” như Kornai nhận định mà còn có những đặc điểm của “công ty Ponzi” mà giáo sư kinh tế học Hyman Minsky nhận định là nguyên nhân dẫn đến bất ổn định tài chính của nền kinh tế đóng cũng như nền kinh tế mở và có người cho rằng có thể giải thích được nguyên nhân của cuộc khủng hoảng tài chính hiện nay.
Theo Minsky, nếu các công ty không phải quan tâm đến khả năng bị phá sản (đối với các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước tại Việt Nam là nhờ vào hạn chế ngân sách mềm mà Nhà nước ban cho) thì họ sẽ có xu hướng sử dụng nợ, đặc biệt là các khoản nợ ngắn hạn để trả các khoản nợ dài hạn (có thể là được dùng để đầu tư) giống như nhà đầu cơ Ponzi, người Ý đã từng làm trước đây để trở nên giàu có và sau đó bị vỡ lở và vào tù.
Không chỉ có Vinashin được hưởng nhiều khoản vay bằng ngoại tệ và được bảo lãnh của Chính phủ để vay từ thị trường nước ngoài, một số các tập đoàn và tổng công ty lớn như VSC, Vinatex, EVN và Vinalines cũng đang được hưởng những ưu đãi tương tự.
Không rõ khả năng trả nợ của Vinashin như thế nào nhưng như đã nêu ở trên đóng tàu là ngành có lợi nhuận rất thấp, và người đứng đầu Vinashin đã nói rằng hiệu quả của khoản chuyển giao phát hành trái phiếu quốc tế 750 triệu USD chỉ có thể biết trong vòng 10 năm nữa, cũng tương tự như việc lãnh đạo EVN cho rằng, họ phải đa dạng hóa các lĩnh vực kinh doanh để “lấy ngắn nuôi dài”.
Bộ Tài chính đã từng tuyên bố rằng các tập đoàn và tổng công ty đang sử dụng nợ để đầu tư ra khỏi lĩnh vực kinh doanh chính vào bất động sản và chứng khoán. Liệu sự “vỡ bong bóng” của cả hai thị trường này trong vòng một năm nay có khiến cho các khoản đầu tư của họ thua lỗ và họ đang đòi được vay thêm để trả các khoản nợ phát sinh do sự vỡ bong bóng này.
Để chống lạm phát, Chính phủ yêu cầu các tập đoàn và tổng công ty dừng hoặc hoãn các dự án và giảm chi đầu tư. Nhưng sự thắt chặt tín dụng chỉ kéo dài chưa được nửa năm. Vinashin đã trở thành tập đoàn đầu tiên được nhà nước “linh hoạt” cho phép đi vay tiếp để “thực hiện” các dự án “trọng điểm” trước cả khi Chính phủ chính thức tuyên bố nới lỏng hơn chính sách tiền tệ và hỗ trợ cho các doanh nghiệp nhỏ và vừa có thể vay vốn khôi phục sản xuất kinh doanh.
Việc mở rộng cổ phần hóa tới các tổng công ty nhà nước và chuyển đổi các tổng công ty này theo mô hình công ty mẹ con đã cho thấy là chưa đủ để nâng cao hiệu quả sản xuất và đầu tư của các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước.
Dựa vào quy định của Chính phủ là các tập đoàn và tổng công ty chuyển đổi sang mô hình mẹ con thì nên đa dạng hóa sản xuất kinh doanh, các tổng công ty đã đầu tư tràn lan vào những lĩnh vực đầu cơ như các số liệu công bố cho thấy. Họ đang thu được lợi từ việc chuyển sang nền kinh tế thị trường nhưng họ lại không bị áp đặt nhiều kỷ luật hơn từ thị trường.
Bài học rút ra từ giai đoạn tăng chi đầu tư chóng mặt nhưng hiệu quả đầu tư thấp và tăng tín dụng quá lớn để đầu tư vào các lĩnh vực bong bóng như bất động sản và chứng khoán, mà chủ thể chính của những khoản đầu tư này chính là các tập đoàn và tổng công ty cho thấy tăng trưởng kinh tế dựa vào kích cầu đầu tư trong giai đoạn mở cửa nền kinh tế nhưng không đi liền với việc giám sát đầu tư và củng cố năng lực của phía cung thì rủi ro là rất lớn.
Mượn lời một lãnh đạo của VRC cho rằng các tập đoàn và tổng công ty đầu tư nhiều vào khu đô thị và khu công nghiệp bởi họ có vốn và đất đai nhiều mà các doanh nghiệp khác khó có được cho thấy hạn chế ngân sách mềm đi liền với sự thiếu giám sát và quản lý của Nhà nước có thể khuyến khích các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước trở thành các “công ty Ponzi” và đặt nền kinh tế trước rủi ro bất ổn tài chính.
Nguyễn Thanh Nga - Chuyên gia kinh tế UNDP (TBKTSG)
Nhà kinh tế học János Kornai người Hungari, từ những năm 1975-1980, đã chỉ ra nguyên nhân chính khiến các nền kinh tế kế hoạch hóa tập trung sản xuất không có hiệu quả, lâm vào tình trạng thiếu thốn triền miên và siêu lạm phát chính là hạn chế ngân sách mềm (soft budget constraints) đối với các doanh nghiệp nhà nước và đói đầu tư (investment hunger) của các doanh nghiệp này.
Hạn chế ngân sách mềm có nghĩa là nhà nước thông qua trợ cấp, miễn giảm thuế, ấn định giá đầu vào, ấn định giá đầu ra, tín dụng ưu đãi hoặc tín chấp... để giúp tạo ra tăng trưởng “giả tạo” cho các doanh nghiệp nhà nước (tăng trưởng của doanh nghiệp không hề liên quan đến tình hình tài chính ở hiện tại và tương lai của doanh nghiệp) và cứu vớt các doanh nghiệp này khỏi thua lỗ và phá sản với bất kỳ giá nào.
Các lãnh đạo của doanh nghiệp không có động lực để thay đổi công nghệ và sáng tạo để đa dạng sản phẩm, nâng cao chất lượng và đầu tư ngược dòng vào các sản phẩm và dịch vụ đầu vào cho sản xuất đòi hỏi nhiều công sức, thời gian đầu tư lâu và thu lợi chậm.
Thay vì đó, để đạt được các kế hoạch như cấp quản lý trên đề ra, các doanh nghiệp này đầu tư liên tục vào những nhà máy và công nghệ hiện có để tăng sản xuất một số ít các sản phẩm cuối cùng. Các kế hoạch lại thường viển vông để theo đuổi mục tiêu công nghiệp hóa và trực tiếp giảm tình trạng thiếu thốn trong nền kinh tế. Tình trạng thiếu thốn càng gay gắt, các doanh nghiệp càng có lý do để xin nhà nước nhiều vốn để đầu tư, điều mà Kornai gọi là “đói đầu tư”.
Bơm vốn và tín dụng
Theo IMF, trong năm 2005 và 2006, Nhà nước đã bảo lãnh cho phát hành trái phiếu doanh nghiệp trong nước trị giá khoảng 1.200 tỉ đồng cho Tổng công ty Điện lực (EVN) và Tập đoàn Dầu khí Việt Nam (Petro Vietnam). Việc bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu này đã được thực hiện cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty khác như Vinashin.
Đáng nói là, những trái phiếu này lại thường được mua bởi chính các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước khi mà lợi tức của nó rất thấp. Trong các chuyến viếng thăm chính thức nước ngoài, Chính phủ “làm chứng” để các tổ chức tài chính nước ngoài bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu ra nước ngoài, tạo nguồn vốn cho các tổng công ty.
Ví dụ, Ngân hàng Credit Suisse (Thụy Sỹ), Ngân hàng BNP (Pháp) và Ngân hàng Deutsche Bank (Đức) đã đồng ý đứng ra bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu tạo nguồn vốn cho Tập đoàn Công nghiệp Tàu thủy Việt Nam - Vinashin) (750 triệu USD trái phiếu quốc tế) và Tổng công ty Dệt may Việt Nam - Vinatex (dự kiến 500 triệu USD trái phiếu doanh nghiệp ra thị trường quốc tế).
Chính phủ cũng bảo lãnh các hợp đồng tín dụng giữa các ngân hàng nước ngoài với các tổng công ty. Credit Suisse đã đồng ý cho Vinashin vay 600 triệu USD và sau đó là cam kết cho vay đến 1 tỉ USD cho Vinashin và cho Vinalines để mua tàu của Vinashin.
Deutsche Bank cũng đồng ý cấp các khoản tín dụng cho Vinashin và Vinatex trong chuyến công du của Thủ tướng đến Đức vào tháng 3/2008. Chính phủ Ba Lan (70 triệu USD và 300 triệu USD) và Chính phủ Trung Quốc (100 triệu USD) cũng đồng ý các khoản tín dụng ưu đãi cho Vinashin dưới sự bảo lãnh của Chính phủ.
Ngân hàng Phát triển (VBD), Ngân hàng Nông nghiệp và Phát triển nông thôn (Agribank) và các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước, Vietcombank, Vietinbank và BIDV, vẫn tiếp tục được coi là các công cụ để Nhà nước bơm thêm tín dụng cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty.
Những hình thức bắt buộc cho vay vượt ngoài mức an toàn tín dụng đã và đang diễn ra dưới các cách khác nhau cho các tập đoàn và tổng công ty khác. Vinashin có được hợp đồng đóng tàu 53.000 tấn của Công ty Graig chính là nhờ yêu cầu của Chính phủ đối với bốn ngân hàng nhà nước bảo lãnh tiền đặt cọc của Graig, đôi khi vượt quá mức an toàn cho ngân hàng.
Trong tháng 5/2007, ngay sau khi Tổng công ty Thép (VSC) được chuyển đổi sang mô hình mẹ con thì Vietcombank cũng bảo lãnh phát hành trái phiếu trong nước trị giá 400 tỉ đồng với cam kết sẽ mua một phần hoặc tất cả số trái phiếu và chuyển đủ tiền cho VSC đúng thời hạn.
Không rõ đây có phải là cách thức VSC vay thêm tiền của Vietcombank vượt quá định mức an toàn khi mà nó vẫn chưa có khả năng trả nợ hết số nợ 51,578 triệu USD (trong tổng nợ 119,58 triệu USD từ cả VBD và các nguồn khác) vào năm 2002 để xây nhà máy thép tấm lá Phú Mỹ.
Trong các báo cáo tài chính của các ngân hàng thương mại nhà nước này vẫn tồn tại một khoản mục là “cho vay chỉ định và theo kế hoạch của Nhà nước”, ngầm hiểu là cho các dự án quốc gia do các tổng công ty nhà nước quản lý.
Hỗ trợ dưới hình thức khác
Có thể phân loại các tập đoàn và tổng công ty thành ba nhóm.
Nhóm thứ nhất là các tổng công ty trong các lĩnh vực được bảo hộ để thay thế nhập khẩu. Các công ty này như VSC, Tổng công ty Hóa chất, Tổng công ty Xi măng, Tổng công ty Giấy đã và đang được bảo hộ bằng hàng rào phi thuế và thuế quan và trợ cấp bằng ấn định giá đầu vào. Cho đến gần đây họ được độc quyền và được bảo hộ nên rất ít áp lực cạnh tranh. Các tổng công ty này đã và đang mắc phải căn bệnh “đói đầu tư”.
Họ đã đầu tư quá nhiều vào sản xuất với công nghệ lạc hậu, các loại sản phẩm cuối cùng không có chất lượng cao, trong khi lại rất ít sản xuất các sản phẩm đầu vào và các sản phẩm cuối cùng chất lượng tốt. Công nghệ lạc hậu khiến chi phí sản xuất cao, hao tổn nhiều tài nguyên và ô nhiễm môi trường.
Họ thất bại trong việc đạt được hiệu quả kinh tế nhờ quy mô (economies of scale) mà Chính phủ mong muốn khi quyết định hình thành nên họ. Mặc dù được gọi là tập đoàn và tổng công ty, nhưng họ bao gồm những nhà máy, phân xưởng và nông trường với quy mô nhỏ so với tiêu chuẩn của ngành, nằm rải rác ở các tỉnh trải dài đất nước. Các nơi sản xuất này lại không gần với vùng nguyên liệu, hoặc cảng biển để vận chuyển có hiệu quả các đầu vào cho sản xuất và sản phẩm cuối cùng đi tiêu thụ.
Một nhóm khác là những tổng công ty có đặc quyền nắm giữ tài nguyên quốc gia. Họ nắm các loại tài nguyên trong lòng đất như dầu lửa (Petro Vietnam), than đá và các khoáng sản (Vinacomin). Hay họ nắm giữ rất nhiều đất rừng và cao nguyên như Tập đoàn Cao su (VRC) hoặc rất nhiều đất đai và cảng biển dọc theo chiều dài đất nước như Vinashin. Họ thực sự độc quyền và củng cố được quyền lực của mình trong nền kinh tế không phải bằng việc tăng giá trị sản phẩm làm ra để phục vụ các ngành trong nước và xuất khẩu mà dựa vào đặc quyền sử dụng tài nguyên.
Nhóm cuối cùng là những tổng công ty sản xuất các sản phẩm hướng vào xuất khẩu như Vinatex, Tổng công ty Da giày hay Tổng công ty Thủy sản. Những tổng công ty này phải cạnh tranh nhiều hơn với các công ty tư nhân và doanh nghiệp nước ngoài, không phải tại thị trường trong nước mà để nhận đơn đặt hàng xuất khẩu. Các tổng công ty này vẫn thực hiện các hợp đồng gia công là chủ yếu và không thu được nhiều giá trị gia tăng do không tự túc được đầu vào hoặc do không có kênh phân phối đến khách hàng cuối cùng ở nước ngoài.
Ngoài ra, trong cuộc cạnh tranh họ đã tỏ ra là kém hiệu quả hơn các doanh nghiệp tư nhân và nước ngoài. Vinatex đặc biệt trong nhóm nhận được rất nhiều ưu đãi xuất khẩu và tín dụng để thực hiện chương trình tăng tỷ lệ nội địa hóa thông qua chương trình 1 tỉ mét vải, nhưng kết quả là hết sức khiêm tốn so với những nỗ lực của khu vực doanh nghiệp nước ngoài và tư nhân.
Việc chuyển đổi các tổng công ty này theo mô hình mẹ con không hề làm tăng hiệu quả kinh tế nhờ quy mô vì quy mô của công ty mẹ cũng như các doanh nghiệp thành viên không được mở rộng, vẫn phân tán và nhỏ lẻ. Việc cổ phần hóa đang tăng thêm nguồn vốn cho các tổng công ty và tăng thêm đôi chút quyền tự chủ cho lãnh đạo các tổng công ty. Nhưng nhân sự trong ban lãnh đạo của các tổng công ty thì lại không thay đổi.
Việc tăng thêm quyền hạn cho họ, đặc biệt là việc được phép đa dạng hóa các lĩnh vực sản xuất kinh doanh kết hợp với việc Chính phủ tiếp tục giúp họ không có hạn chế ngân sách đang dẫn đến việc họ tiếp tục “đói đầu tư” để đầu tư không có hiệu quả hoặc mong muốn chuyển mình thành những định chế tài chính nhiều hơn là chuyên vào lĩnh vực sản xuất chính của họ.
Với lý do Việt Nam đang thiếu gần nửa năng lực về sản xuất phôi thép và thiếu hoàn toàn năng lực sản xuất thép tấm lá, cả Vinashin, VSC, GERUCO và một số tổng công ty nhà nước cấp tỉnh đang liên doanh với các công ty nước ngoài để thực hiện các dự án liên hợp thép khổng lồ từ 1 tỉ đến gần 10 tỉ USD (nếu tính cả các dự án 100% FDI thì lên đến gần 10 dự án) bất chấp rất nhiều ý kiến chuyên gia về nguy cơ thừa công suất, thiếu quan tâm đến khả năng cung cấp các đầu vào điện và quặng sắt cho tất cả các dự án, mức độ ô nhiễm môi trường và năng lực tài chính và công nghệ của các đối tác đầu tư để có thể thực sự hoàn thành được các dự án.
Câu hỏi đặt ra là liệu các doanh nghiệp nước ngoài có đang dựa vào cam kết tiếp tục bảo hộ ngành thép trong nước của Chính phủ trong chiến lược phát triển ngành thép 2007-2015 và vào vị thế của các tập đoàn nhà nước để thu lợi cho mình. Hơn thế, VSC cũng đang sử dụng nguồn vốn từ cổ phần hóa và từ “hạn chế ngân sách mềm” để đầu tư vào các dự án quy mô nhỏ.
Tương tự, với mong muốn trở thành nước đứng đầu thế giới về đóng tàu, Vinashin đang huy động số vốn 3,8 tỉ USD để đầu tư đồng loạt vào 17 nhà máy đóng tàu, sáu khu công nghiệp đóng tàu và bảy tổ hợp đóng tàu dọc theo bờ biển của Việt Nam (họ có tổng cộng 70 dự án đang thực hiện).
Vấn đề nổi cộm mà nhiều chuyên gia bình luận về chiến lược đầu tư của Vinashin là liệu có nên đầu tư quá nhiều vào ngành này khi mà tỷ suất lợi nhuận rất thấp (số liệu cho ba công ty đóng tàu lớn nhất của Việt Nam là dưới 1%) và rủi ro lỗ do chênh lệch lớn giá nguyên liệu đầu vào và giá tàu giữa lúc ký hợp đồng và giao tàu.
Có thể những đầu tư này đang tạo ra tăng trưởng kinh tế trong giai đoạn hiện tại, nhưng là một sự lãng phí nguồn vốn khan hiếm trong dài hạn.
Lấy nợ nuôi nợ
Vấn đề của các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước hiện nay không chỉ là “đói đầu tư” như Kornai nhận định mà còn có những đặc điểm của “công ty Ponzi” mà giáo sư kinh tế học Hyman Minsky nhận định là nguyên nhân dẫn đến bất ổn định tài chính của nền kinh tế đóng cũng như nền kinh tế mở và có người cho rằng có thể giải thích được nguyên nhân của cuộc khủng hoảng tài chính hiện nay.
Theo Minsky, nếu các công ty không phải quan tâm đến khả năng bị phá sản (đối với các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước tại Việt Nam là nhờ vào hạn chế ngân sách mềm mà Nhà nước ban cho) thì họ sẽ có xu hướng sử dụng nợ, đặc biệt là các khoản nợ ngắn hạn để trả các khoản nợ dài hạn (có thể là được dùng để đầu tư) giống như nhà đầu cơ Ponzi, người Ý đã từng làm trước đây để trở nên giàu có và sau đó bị vỡ lở và vào tù.
Không chỉ có Vinashin được hưởng nhiều khoản vay bằng ngoại tệ và được bảo lãnh của Chính phủ để vay từ thị trường nước ngoài, một số các tập đoàn và tổng công ty lớn như VSC, Vinatex, EVN và Vinalines cũng đang được hưởng những ưu đãi tương tự.
Không rõ khả năng trả nợ của Vinashin như thế nào nhưng như đã nêu ở trên đóng tàu là ngành có lợi nhuận rất thấp, và người đứng đầu Vinashin đã nói rằng hiệu quả của khoản chuyển giao phát hành trái phiếu quốc tế 750 triệu USD chỉ có thể biết trong vòng 10 năm nữa, cũng tương tự như việc lãnh đạo EVN cho rằng, họ phải đa dạng hóa các lĩnh vực kinh doanh để “lấy ngắn nuôi dài”.
Bộ Tài chính đã từng tuyên bố rằng các tập đoàn và tổng công ty đang sử dụng nợ để đầu tư ra khỏi lĩnh vực kinh doanh chính vào bất động sản và chứng khoán. Liệu sự “vỡ bong bóng” của cả hai thị trường này trong vòng một năm nay có khiến cho các khoản đầu tư của họ thua lỗ và họ đang đòi được vay thêm để trả các khoản nợ phát sinh do sự vỡ bong bóng này.
Để chống lạm phát, Chính phủ yêu cầu các tập đoàn và tổng công ty dừng hoặc hoãn các dự án và giảm chi đầu tư. Nhưng sự thắt chặt tín dụng chỉ kéo dài chưa được nửa năm. Vinashin đã trở thành tập đoàn đầu tiên được nhà nước “linh hoạt” cho phép đi vay tiếp để “thực hiện” các dự án “trọng điểm” trước cả khi Chính phủ chính thức tuyên bố nới lỏng hơn chính sách tiền tệ và hỗ trợ cho các doanh nghiệp nhỏ và vừa có thể vay vốn khôi phục sản xuất kinh doanh.
Việc mở rộng cổ phần hóa tới các tổng công ty nhà nước và chuyển đổi các tổng công ty này theo mô hình công ty mẹ con đã cho thấy là chưa đủ để nâng cao hiệu quả sản xuất và đầu tư của các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước.
Dựa vào quy định của Chính phủ là các tập đoàn và tổng công ty chuyển đổi sang mô hình mẹ con thì nên đa dạng hóa sản xuất kinh doanh, các tổng công ty đã đầu tư tràn lan vào những lĩnh vực đầu cơ như các số liệu công bố cho thấy. Họ đang thu được lợi từ việc chuyển sang nền kinh tế thị trường nhưng họ lại không bị áp đặt nhiều kỷ luật hơn từ thị trường.
Bài học rút ra từ giai đoạn tăng chi đầu tư chóng mặt nhưng hiệu quả đầu tư thấp và tăng tín dụng quá lớn để đầu tư vào các lĩnh vực bong bóng như bất động sản và chứng khoán, mà chủ thể chính của những khoản đầu tư này chính là các tập đoàn và tổng công ty cho thấy tăng trưởng kinh tế dựa vào kích cầu đầu tư trong giai đoạn mở cửa nền kinh tế nhưng không đi liền với việc giám sát đầu tư và củng cố năng lực của phía cung thì rủi ro là rất lớn.
Mượn lời một lãnh đạo của VRC cho rằng các tập đoàn và tổng công ty đầu tư nhiều vào khu đô thị và khu công nghiệp bởi họ có vốn và đất đai nhiều mà các doanh nghiệp khác khó có được cho thấy hạn chế ngân sách mềm đi liền với sự thiếu giám sát và quản lý của Nhà nước có thể khuyến khích các tập đoàn và tổng công ty nhà nước trở thành các “công ty Ponzi” và đặt nền kinh tế trước rủi ro bất ổn tài chính.
Nguyễn Thanh Nga - Chuyên gia kinh tế UNDP (TBKTSG)
23 Dec 2008
Yếu tố Việt Nam trong hệ thống an ninh khu vực
Việt Nam là một quốc gia chiếm vị trí rất quan trọng trong bất kỳ hệ thống an ninh nào trong vùng Á Đông.
Việt Nam là cầu nối giữa Trung Quốc và các nước Đông Nam Á lục địa và hải đảo.
Hơn nữa hiện nay giá trị chiến lược của biển Đông đang tăng lên trong mối quan hệ giữa Đông Bắc Á và Đông Nam Á.
Chiếm vị thế
Cần phải nói thêm là kế hoạch xây dụng trật tự mới trong vùng Á Đông không thể thực hiện được nếu họ không giám sát được Việt Nam.
Chính vì thế, các cường quốc như Trung Quốc, Pháp, Nhật, Mỹ, Liên Xô đã tìm cách chiếm vị thế tại Việt Nam hoặc ít nhiều là có mối quan hệ tốt với giới chính khách tại Việt Nam.
Mỗi quốc gia có hình thức hoạt động khác nhau.
Một số cường quốc đã ra sức tìm cách lập chế độ bù nhìn tại Việt Nam và nước Nga là nước duy nhất không bao giờ can thiệp vào công việc nội bộ của Việt Nam, mà luôn có quan hệ bình đẳng, giúp đỡ tương trợ Việt Nam.
Cán cân thay đổi
Hiện tại tình hình không ổn định vì cán cân kinh tế đã thay đổi và không thích hợp với quan hệ chính trị giữa các nước trong vùng Á Đông
GS Kolotov
Trong nửa cuối thế kỷ XX, Việt Nam đã đóng vai trò như bộ phận cảm biến trong việc xác định thế cân bằng của các thế lực trong khu vực.
Hiện nay cũng như trong quá khứ, Việt Nam là đối tượng tranh đua ngầm và công khai giữa các cường quốc.
Tình hình thay đổi
Sau khi cuộc chiến tranh lạnh kết thúc, thì yếu tố kinh tế trở thành hết sức quan trọng.
Hiện tại thì tình hình không ổn định vì cán cân kinh tế đã thay đổi và không thích hợp với quan hệ chính trị giữa các nước trong vùng Á Đông, đặc biệt là trong lĩnh vực an ninh quốc tế.
Hiện nay, cán cân này đang trong quá trình thay đổi.
Vùng Á Đông bao gồm hai khu vực lớn: Đông Bắc Á và Đông Nam Á.
Hai khu vực này có quan hệ chặt chẽ với nhau và có sự phụ thuộc lẫn nhau.
Các nước Đông Bắc Á có trình độ phát triển cao hơn, nhưng bị phụ thuộc về mặt tài nguyên.
Các nước Đông Nam Á rất giàu về mặt tài nguyên, nhưng nhiều khi không có công nghệ khai thác.
Vùng Á Đông rất phong phú về mặt chính trị và văn hóa, nhưng rõ ràng là trong vùng thiếu sự lãnh đạo vì thế các nước khác ngoài vùng dễ dàng can thiệp và thực hiện chính sách “chia để trị”.
An ninh kinh tế
Hiện nay, các nước trong vùng đang tìm cách liên kết về mặt kinh tế và tất nhiên bước tiếp theo là sự liên kết về mặt tài chính và chính trị.
Kiểm soát tài nguyên
Ai kiểm soát được tài nguyên của các nước Đông Nam Á thì sẽ có thể xây dựng nền kinh tế hiện đại
GS Kolotov
Cần phải nói rằng: các nước Đông Nam Á không thể bảo đảm an ninh cho mình về mặt kinh tế và quân sự.
Tất nhiên trên thế giới không phải ai cũng tán thành sự phát triển nhanh chóng của các nước Đông Nam Á và cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế năm 1997-1998 đã chứng minh điều đó.
Hồi đó chỉ có sự can thiệp của Trung Quốc đã giúp làm ổn định tình hình kinh tế tại một số nước.
Sự phát triển của Trung Quốc hiện nay gây lo ngại cho Mỹ.
Chúng ta có thể nói về sự tranh chấp giữa Trung Quốc và Mỹ tại khu vực ASEAN và vùng Á Đông.
Vì nếu ai có thể kiểm soát được tài nguyên của các nước Đông Nam Á, thì có thể xây dựng nền kinh tế hiện đại.
Chạy đua vũ trang
Sự vắng mặt của một hệ thống an ninh trong khu vực cùng với sự mất ổn định trên thế giới tạo nên cuộc chạy đua vũ trang chưa từng thấy.
Các nước tìm cách mua vũ khí để bảo vệ đất nước của mình.
Kinh nghiệm của các cuộc chiến tranh ở Việt Nam đều chứng minh rằng: vũ khí hiện đại có thể thay đổi cán cân trên chiến trường.
Chính vì thế, nước Nga hiện nay trở thành một trong những nhà cung cấp vũ khí hàng đầu trong khu vực.
Hơn nữa, tình hình mất ổn định và hoạt động đơn phương của Mỹ trên thế giới cũng ảnh hưởng đến thái độ của các nước Á Đông.
Sự tăng trưởng kinh tế của Trung Quốc sẽ chắc chắn được biến thành thế lực chính trị và sẽ gây ra những thay đổi về mặt an ninh không những tại Đông Nam Á, mà còn tại Á Đông.
Trong bối cảnh tại vùng Á Đông không có hệ thống an ninh thì sự phát triển vượt bậc của Trung Quốc sẽ gây ra thay đổi trật tự trong vùng.
Giữa các cường quốc
Rõ ràng là sự tập trung hóa của các nước trong vùng Á Đông dưới chiêu bài Trung Quốc là trái ngược với quyền lợi của Mỹ.
Trong tình hình này Việt Nam được xem như là một nước đứng giữa các cường quốc.
Rõ ràng là bên nào biết cách sử dụng yếu tố Việt Nam thì có thể ngăn chặn sự bành trướng chiến lược của Trung Quốc trong khu vực Đông Nam Á.
Các cách bố trí lực lượng đang được nghiên cứu không những tại Washington, mà còn tại Bắc Kinh, Hà Nội và Mátxcơva.
Các bên liên quan đến vấn đề địa chính trị này đều đa nghi và cân bằng tương lai giữa các lực lượng chưa được hình thành.
Như vậy, “cuộc chiến tranh vì Việt Nam” sẽ có hậu quả dài hạn và ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến sự phát triển của cả khu vực Đông Nam Á và vùng Á Đông.
Đến bây giờ Bắc Kinh hoạt động thành công hơn so với các bên khác.
Mỹ và Trung Quốc
Trung Quốc theo dõi chặt chẽ các chính sách của Việt Nam và có phản ứng kịp thời đối với một số họat động của chính phủ Việt Nam.
Theo các chuyên gia Mỹ thì Việt Nam cần phải tìm một liên minh để ngăn chặn cán cân không thuận lợi xung quanh các đảo trên biển Đông, mà Việt Nam đang tranh chấp với Trung Quốc.
Chính vì thế, Việt Nam được coi ở Mỹ như là một liên minh tự nhiên.
Nhưng trong bối cảnh của các cuộc chiến tranh đã qua và áp lực về mặt “nhân quyền” và “tự do tôn giáo” thì những đề nghị này tại Việt Nam được coi như là đe dọa cho sự ổn định chính trị của chế độ.
Mỹ xem Việt Nam như là một công cụ hiệu quả có thể sử dụng để ngăn chặn sự bành trướng của Trung Quốc về phía Nam.
Cựu đại sứ Mỹ Tại Việt Nam chấp nhận “Việt Nam sẽ không bao giờ muốn được coi như là một bộ phận của chính sách chống lại Trung Quốc”.
Linh hoạt giữa đe và búa
Hà Nội lo ngại sự đối vị giữa Trung Quốc-Mỹ và không muốn bị chơi lại như Afghanistan 30 năm trước khi quốc gia này bị thanh toán trong quá trình kiềm chế sự bành trướng về phía Nam của Liên Xô.
Sự tồn tại giữa búa và đe không phải là mới đối với Việt Nam và luật chơi vẫn như cũ: càng nhiều cường quốc bị lôi kéo vào trò chơi địa chính trị, thì Việt Nam càng nhiều cơ hội để linh hoạt.
Vậy câu hỏi bên nào có lợi hơn cho Việt Nam trong tình hình địa chính trị thì vẫn chưa có câu trả lời rõ ràng?
Ai cũng biết là Việt Nam rất khéo léo trong việc giữ cân bằng giữa các cường quốc và qua lịch sử, Việt Nam thường thực hiện chính sách của mình một cách linh hoạt.
Qua kinh nghiệm lịch sử thì chúng ta biết là: Việt Nam cũng như Afghanistan thuộc về kiểu đất nước luôn đề nghị cho ngoại xâm luật chơi rõ ràng – đối thủ phải trả giá đắt.
Việt Nam là một nước luôn bảo vệ chủ quyền của mình đến cùng.
Chính vì thế Việt Nam có uy tín lớn trên thế giới.
Lá bài Việt Nam?
Một số cường quốc đã có kinh nghiệm đáng buồn trong cuộc chiến tại Việt Nam vào thế kỷ XX.
Nhưng họ vẫn muốn thử chơi lá bài Việt Nam để chống lại đối thủ chiến lược của mình.
Trong bối cảnh này, nước Nga là cường quốc duy nhất không bao giờ xâm lược Việt Nam và thường xuyên thực hiện chính sách trước sau như một với Hà Nội.
Về phía mình, Hà Nội xem Mátxcơva như là một người bạn truyền thống và tin cậy.
Các cường quốc kể cả nước Nga có thể ảnh hưởng đến sự phát triển của Á Đông với trục tâm là Trung Quốc qua chính sách của mình đối với Việt Nam.
Tất nhiên, tình hình sẽ phụ thuộc nhiều vào chủ trương độc lập của Việt Nam.
Sự phát triển tiếp theo của liên kết kinh tế giữa Trung Quốc và các nước ASEAN sẽ có thể có kết quả như là liên kết chính trị và tài chính.
Như vậy thế lực và sức mạnh của khu vực tăng lên đáng kể, nhưng không phải ai cũng có thể chấp nhận điều đó.
Ảnh hưởng Đông Nam Á
Như vậy Việt Nam được coi như là một công cụ có thể sử dụng được để tác động đến quá trình này.
Chính vì thế Việt Nam bị áp lực từ nhiều bên để đẩy mạnh hoặc ngăn chặn quá trình này.
Quyết định của Việt Nam sẽ có ảnh hưởng lớn đến tương lai của khu vực Đông Nam Á và cả vùng Á Đông.
Vào những năm gần đây, chúng ta thấy là tình hình trên thế giới mỗi năm càng thêm căng thẳng.
Hoạt động đơn phương và không hợp pháp gây tình hình mất ổn định trên chính trường quốc tế.
Những ví dụ vừa qua tại Irắc, Afghanistan, Kosovo, Gruzia đã chứng minh rất rõ là các thế lực thù địch vẫn tiếp tục gây bạo loạn dưới chiêu bài dân chủ và nhân quyền.
Trung Quốc và Mỹ đang tìm cách thực hiện khái nhiệm đối đầu của họ trong vùng Á Đông (liên kết khu vực và kiềm chế khu vực) và hai bên đều hiểu là họ không thực hiện được chính sách của mình nếu họ coi thường yếu tố Việt Nam.
Điều đó khiến chúng ta phải coi yếu tố Việt Nam là hết sức quan trọng trong hệ thống an ninh khu vực đang trong giai đoạn biến đổi.
GS Vladimir Kolotov là tiến sĩ ngành khoa học lịch sử, hiện đang giữ chức trưởng khoa sử Viễn Đông, Đại học quốc gia St. Petersburg, Nga. Đây là bài tóm lược giới thiệu cho báo cáo của GS Kolotov tại Hội thảo quốc tế về Việt Nam học lần 3, tổ chức tại Hà Nội 5-7.2008
Việt Nam là cầu nối giữa Trung Quốc và các nước Đông Nam Á lục địa và hải đảo.
Hơn nữa hiện nay giá trị chiến lược của biển Đông đang tăng lên trong mối quan hệ giữa Đông Bắc Á và Đông Nam Á.
Chiếm vị thế
Cần phải nói thêm là kế hoạch xây dụng trật tự mới trong vùng Á Đông không thể thực hiện được nếu họ không giám sát được Việt Nam.
Chính vì thế, các cường quốc như Trung Quốc, Pháp, Nhật, Mỹ, Liên Xô đã tìm cách chiếm vị thế tại Việt Nam hoặc ít nhiều là có mối quan hệ tốt với giới chính khách tại Việt Nam.
Mỗi quốc gia có hình thức hoạt động khác nhau.
Một số cường quốc đã ra sức tìm cách lập chế độ bù nhìn tại Việt Nam và nước Nga là nước duy nhất không bao giờ can thiệp vào công việc nội bộ của Việt Nam, mà luôn có quan hệ bình đẳng, giúp đỡ tương trợ Việt Nam.
Cán cân thay đổi
Hiện tại tình hình không ổn định vì cán cân kinh tế đã thay đổi và không thích hợp với quan hệ chính trị giữa các nước trong vùng Á Đông
GS Kolotov
Trong nửa cuối thế kỷ XX, Việt Nam đã đóng vai trò như bộ phận cảm biến trong việc xác định thế cân bằng của các thế lực trong khu vực.
Hiện nay cũng như trong quá khứ, Việt Nam là đối tượng tranh đua ngầm và công khai giữa các cường quốc.
Tình hình thay đổi
Sau khi cuộc chiến tranh lạnh kết thúc, thì yếu tố kinh tế trở thành hết sức quan trọng.
Hiện tại thì tình hình không ổn định vì cán cân kinh tế đã thay đổi và không thích hợp với quan hệ chính trị giữa các nước trong vùng Á Đông, đặc biệt là trong lĩnh vực an ninh quốc tế.
Hiện nay, cán cân này đang trong quá trình thay đổi.
Vùng Á Đông bao gồm hai khu vực lớn: Đông Bắc Á và Đông Nam Á.
Hai khu vực này có quan hệ chặt chẽ với nhau và có sự phụ thuộc lẫn nhau.
Các nước Đông Bắc Á có trình độ phát triển cao hơn, nhưng bị phụ thuộc về mặt tài nguyên.
Các nước Đông Nam Á rất giàu về mặt tài nguyên, nhưng nhiều khi không có công nghệ khai thác.
Vùng Á Đông rất phong phú về mặt chính trị và văn hóa, nhưng rõ ràng là trong vùng thiếu sự lãnh đạo vì thế các nước khác ngoài vùng dễ dàng can thiệp và thực hiện chính sách “chia để trị”.
An ninh kinh tế
Hiện nay, các nước trong vùng đang tìm cách liên kết về mặt kinh tế và tất nhiên bước tiếp theo là sự liên kết về mặt tài chính và chính trị.
Kiểm soát tài nguyên
Ai kiểm soát được tài nguyên của các nước Đông Nam Á thì sẽ có thể xây dựng nền kinh tế hiện đại
GS Kolotov
Cần phải nói rằng: các nước Đông Nam Á không thể bảo đảm an ninh cho mình về mặt kinh tế và quân sự.
Tất nhiên trên thế giới không phải ai cũng tán thành sự phát triển nhanh chóng của các nước Đông Nam Á và cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế năm 1997-1998 đã chứng minh điều đó.
Hồi đó chỉ có sự can thiệp của Trung Quốc đã giúp làm ổn định tình hình kinh tế tại một số nước.
Sự phát triển của Trung Quốc hiện nay gây lo ngại cho Mỹ.
Chúng ta có thể nói về sự tranh chấp giữa Trung Quốc và Mỹ tại khu vực ASEAN và vùng Á Đông.
Vì nếu ai có thể kiểm soát được tài nguyên của các nước Đông Nam Á, thì có thể xây dựng nền kinh tế hiện đại.
Chạy đua vũ trang
Sự vắng mặt của một hệ thống an ninh trong khu vực cùng với sự mất ổn định trên thế giới tạo nên cuộc chạy đua vũ trang chưa từng thấy.
Các nước tìm cách mua vũ khí để bảo vệ đất nước của mình.
Kinh nghiệm của các cuộc chiến tranh ở Việt Nam đều chứng minh rằng: vũ khí hiện đại có thể thay đổi cán cân trên chiến trường.
Chính vì thế, nước Nga hiện nay trở thành một trong những nhà cung cấp vũ khí hàng đầu trong khu vực.
Hơn nữa, tình hình mất ổn định và hoạt động đơn phương của Mỹ trên thế giới cũng ảnh hưởng đến thái độ của các nước Á Đông.
Sự tăng trưởng kinh tế của Trung Quốc sẽ chắc chắn được biến thành thế lực chính trị và sẽ gây ra những thay đổi về mặt an ninh không những tại Đông Nam Á, mà còn tại Á Đông.
Trong bối cảnh tại vùng Á Đông không có hệ thống an ninh thì sự phát triển vượt bậc của Trung Quốc sẽ gây ra thay đổi trật tự trong vùng.
Giữa các cường quốc
Rõ ràng là sự tập trung hóa của các nước trong vùng Á Đông dưới chiêu bài Trung Quốc là trái ngược với quyền lợi của Mỹ.
Trong tình hình này Việt Nam được xem như là một nước đứng giữa các cường quốc.
Rõ ràng là bên nào biết cách sử dụng yếu tố Việt Nam thì có thể ngăn chặn sự bành trướng chiến lược của Trung Quốc trong khu vực Đông Nam Á.
Các cách bố trí lực lượng đang được nghiên cứu không những tại Washington, mà còn tại Bắc Kinh, Hà Nội và Mátxcơva.
Các bên liên quan đến vấn đề địa chính trị này đều đa nghi và cân bằng tương lai giữa các lực lượng chưa được hình thành.
Như vậy, “cuộc chiến tranh vì Việt Nam” sẽ có hậu quả dài hạn và ảnh hưởng trực tiếp đến sự phát triển của cả khu vực Đông Nam Á và vùng Á Đông.
Đến bây giờ Bắc Kinh hoạt động thành công hơn so với các bên khác.
Mỹ và Trung Quốc
Trung Quốc theo dõi chặt chẽ các chính sách của Việt Nam và có phản ứng kịp thời đối với một số họat động của chính phủ Việt Nam.
Theo các chuyên gia Mỹ thì Việt Nam cần phải tìm một liên minh để ngăn chặn cán cân không thuận lợi xung quanh các đảo trên biển Đông, mà Việt Nam đang tranh chấp với Trung Quốc.
Chính vì thế, Việt Nam được coi ở Mỹ như là một liên minh tự nhiên.
Nhưng trong bối cảnh của các cuộc chiến tranh đã qua và áp lực về mặt “nhân quyền” và “tự do tôn giáo” thì những đề nghị này tại Việt Nam được coi như là đe dọa cho sự ổn định chính trị của chế độ.
Mỹ xem Việt Nam như là một công cụ hiệu quả có thể sử dụng để ngăn chặn sự bành trướng của Trung Quốc về phía Nam.
Cựu đại sứ Mỹ Tại Việt Nam chấp nhận “Việt Nam sẽ không bao giờ muốn được coi như là một bộ phận của chính sách chống lại Trung Quốc”.
Linh hoạt giữa đe và búa
Hà Nội lo ngại sự đối vị giữa Trung Quốc-Mỹ và không muốn bị chơi lại như Afghanistan 30 năm trước khi quốc gia này bị thanh toán trong quá trình kiềm chế sự bành trướng về phía Nam của Liên Xô.
Sự tồn tại giữa búa và đe không phải là mới đối với Việt Nam và luật chơi vẫn như cũ: càng nhiều cường quốc bị lôi kéo vào trò chơi địa chính trị, thì Việt Nam càng nhiều cơ hội để linh hoạt.
Vậy câu hỏi bên nào có lợi hơn cho Việt Nam trong tình hình địa chính trị thì vẫn chưa có câu trả lời rõ ràng?
Ai cũng biết là Việt Nam rất khéo léo trong việc giữ cân bằng giữa các cường quốc và qua lịch sử, Việt Nam thường thực hiện chính sách của mình một cách linh hoạt.
Qua kinh nghiệm lịch sử thì chúng ta biết là: Việt Nam cũng như Afghanistan thuộc về kiểu đất nước luôn đề nghị cho ngoại xâm luật chơi rõ ràng – đối thủ phải trả giá đắt.
Việt Nam là một nước luôn bảo vệ chủ quyền của mình đến cùng.
Chính vì thế Việt Nam có uy tín lớn trên thế giới.
Lá bài Việt Nam?
Một số cường quốc đã có kinh nghiệm đáng buồn trong cuộc chiến tại Việt Nam vào thế kỷ XX.
Nhưng họ vẫn muốn thử chơi lá bài Việt Nam để chống lại đối thủ chiến lược của mình.
Trong bối cảnh này, nước Nga là cường quốc duy nhất không bao giờ xâm lược Việt Nam và thường xuyên thực hiện chính sách trước sau như một với Hà Nội.
Về phía mình, Hà Nội xem Mátxcơva như là một người bạn truyền thống và tin cậy.
Các cường quốc kể cả nước Nga có thể ảnh hưởng đến sự phát triển của Á Đông với trục tâm là Trung Quốc qua chính sách của mình đối với Việt Nam.
Tất nhiên, tình hình sẽ phụ thuộc nhiều vào chủ trương độc lập của Việt Nam.
Sự phát triển tiếp theo của liên kết kinh tế giữa Trung Quốc và các nước ASEAN sẽ có thể có kết quả như là liên kết chính trị và tài chính.
Như vậy thế lực và sức mạnh của khu vực tăng lên đáng kể, nhưng không phải ai cũng có thể chấp nhận điều đó.
Ảnh hưởng Đông Nam Á
Như vậy Việt Nam được coi như là một công cụ có thể sử dụng được để tác động đến quá trình này.
Chính vì thế Việt Nam bị áp lực từ nhiều bên để đẩy mạnh hoặc ngăn chặn quá trình này.
Quyết định của Việt Nam sẽ có ảnh hưởng lớn đến tương lai của khu vực Đông Nam Á và cả vùng Á Đông.
Vào những năm gần đây, chúng ta thấy là tình hình trên thế giới mỗi năm càng thêm căng thẳng.
Hoạt động đơn phương và không hợp pháp gây tình hình mất ổn định trên chính trường quốc tế.
Những ví dụ vừa qua tại Irắc, Afghanistan, Kosovo, Gruzia đã chứng minh rất rõ là các thế lực thù địch vẫn tiếp tục gây bạo loạn dưới chiêu bài dân chủ và nhân quyền.
Trung Quốc và Mỹ đang tìm cách thực hiện khái nhiệm đối đầu của họ trong vùng Á Đông (liên kết khu vực và kiềm chế khu vực) và hai bên đều hiểu là họ không thực hiện được chính sách của mình nếu họ coi thường yếu tố Việt Nam.
Điều đó khiến chúng ta phải coi yếu tố Việt Nam là hết sức quan trọng trong hệ thống an ninh khu vực đang trong giai đoạn biến đổi.
GS Vladimir Kolotov là tiến sĩ ngành khoa học lịch sử, hiện đang giữ chức trưởng khoa sử Viễn Đông, Đại học quốc gia St. Petersburg, Nga. Đây là bài tóm lược giới thiệu cho báo cáo của GS Kolotov tại Hội thảo quốc tế về Việt Nam học lần 3, tổ chức tại Hà Nội 5-7.2008
Old Enemies Become Friends: U.S. and Vietnam
11/2006-For two governments that fought each other in a long, bitter war, the steady improvement in U.S.-Vietnam relations in recent years has been a remarkable development. At a time when America's relations with some old friends are strained, our friendly ties with this old enemy must seem surprising to many people. As two veteran Asia hands, former U.S. Ambassadors Stephen Bosworth and Morton Abramowitz, recently commented, "Ironically, Vietnam may ... be the most pro-American country in Southeast Asia." While America's "soft power" may be eroding elsewhere in Asia, young Vietnamese idolize Bill Gates and aspire to study at our universities.
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Vietnamese-American ties will get attention this fall when President Bush visits Hanoi for the November 18-19 meeting of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. In addition to attending the multilateral APEC meeting, Bush will make an official visit to Vietnam, meeting the leadership in Hanoi and visiting Ho Chi Minh City, the country's leading economic center.
Vietnam's first experience as host of the mammoth APEC gathering will be an important coming-out party for Asia's second fastest growing economy. Vietnam also seems poised to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) just before or after the APEC meeting. The WTO entry will be a major milestone in the country's post-cold war integration into the world.
The good relations between Washington and Hanoi can be attributed to two factors: (1) a pragmatic approach by both countries since normalization in 1995, focusing on present and future mutual benefits rather than obsessing about the past, and; (2) more recently, the realization by both parties that we have no strategic conflict and, in fact, have important areas of strategic convergence.
1995 - 2003: Reconciliation and Trade
Until fairly recently, the U.S. approach to Vietnam was separate from any strategic plan for the East Asia region. Beginning in the early 1990s, the process of normalization involved a series of steady yet cautious steps whose pace was set by single-issue interest groups: POW-MIA families seeking to account for their missing loved ones, veterans seeking reconciliation, Vietnamese refugees wanting reunification with family members left behind, humanitarian and educational institutions, and American businesses seeking to export to Vietnam or invest there. Vietnam has seemed motivated primarily by its wish for access to U.S. markets and investments and by the importance of U.S. support for admission to the world's leading clubs, from APEC to the WTO.
As bilateral ties strengthened in the late 1990s, the focus turned toward economic opportunities. Two-way trade has grown over five-fold since a bilateral trade agreement was signed in December 2001, followed quickly by textile and civil aviation agreements. The U.S. is now Vietnam's biggest trade partner. U.S. investment in the country grew more slowly but is now a significant factor in Vietnam's growth. Intel's announcement last February that it will build a $605 million chip plant and testing facility in Ho Chi Minh City was a significant event in the country's progress beyond garments and shoes to higher levels of manufacturing. A Vietnamese leader told me recently that the country's decision in 2005 to give Lockheed Martin the contract to build and launch the country's first commercial satellite, a sensitive item, was an important symbol of trust and strong ties.
This healthy economic relationship has been accompanied by significant humanitarian and educational cooperation. In 2004 President Bush decided that Vietnam, which had taken a very responsible approach to the SARS epidemic, would be the only Asian country to benefit from a special presidential fund for HIV/AIDS. In the educational field, the U.S. government contributes more than ten million dollars each year toward Fulbright and other programs for Vietnam, a greater amount than for any other country.
Post-2003: Strategic Dimension Added (Quietly)
Until the second half of 2003, this progress moved at a slow pace. Important elements in each society remained wary or even opposed to closer ties. Complete normalization, including military, intelligence, and law enforcement cooperation, only became possible when each side began to see the other as useful in maintaining regional balance with China.
By the second half of 2003 both governments were doing some strategic reassessment. For nearly two years after September 11, 2001, Washington had described Sino-U.S. ties as the "best since 1979" as our government depended on Beijing's cooperation in counter-terrorism and in controlling weapons proliferators such as North Korea. But as the Bush administration approached the end of its first term, Washington's focus returned to the inherently competitive nature of our relationship with Beijing. Sino-American ties were now described by Bush as a "complicated" mix of cooperation and competition. The concept of "hedging" relations with China against the uncertainty of how Beijing will use its new power and influence became a central tenet of U.S. policy. Vietnam, with its long history of troubled relations with its huge neighbor, was seen by some Washington policy makers-especially in the Pentagon-as an obvious partner.
At the same time in late 2003, Vietnam was becoming concerned that China's influence was rising in Southeast Asia while the U.S. appeared to be hopelessly distracted in the Mideast. Vietnamese leaders informed us they would now welcome major steps that they had resisted for years. In rapid succession, then-Defense Minister Pham Van Tra visited Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld at the Pentagon, the first U.S. Navy ship since 1975 visited Saigon Port, our access to top leaders became much easier, and we began a dialogue on strategic issues that Hanoi had previously considered off-limits. This pattern continued with then-Prime Minister Phan Van Khai's visit to Washington in June 2005, the first by a Chief of State of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Several more U.S. naval ships have visited Saigon Port and Danang and the two countries signed military and law enforcement cooperation agreements that had been stalled for years.
This increased strategic alignment is an important development but should not be exaggerated. Vietnam remains wary of the U.S. While Hanoi values America's role in maintaining a regional balance of power, it is suspicious of our proselytizing for democracy, human rights, and religious freedom. More importantly, Vietnam will never want to be seen as part of a containment policy against China. It will look over its shoulder to make sure its big brother is not unduly provoked. The Bush administration understands Hanoi's sensitivity, which poses no problem for America's overall strategy. Containment of China would be an impossible objective and Vietnam's role in a policy of "hedging" will be a modest one.
This constructive relationship seems likely to follow its pattern of steady, careful progress. The Vietnamese leadership continues to seek new foreign investment and integration with the world, goals that require good relations with America. The U.S. will continue to have differences with Vietnam on human rights. Pressure from Vietnamese-Americans, fundamentalist Protestants, and human rights activists continue to generate Congressional and Administration attention on cases of repression of house churches, cyber dissidents, and others who defy the political order. But, the Administration clearly is determined not to hold the entire relationship with Vietnam hostage to any one issue - including human rights. The U.S. will continue to value Vietnam's dynamic economy, its increasingly sophisticated leadership and its quietly growing leadership role in Southeast Asia.
The author served as United States ambassador to Vietnam, 2001-2004.
Related Content
Vietnamese-American ties will get attention this fall when President Bush visits Hanoi for the November 18-19 meeting of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. In addition to attending the multilateral APEC meeting, Bush will make an official visit to Vietnam, meeting the leadership in Hanoi and visiting Ho Chi Minh City, the country's leading economic center.
Vietnam's first experience as host of the mammoth APEC gathering will be an important coming-out party for Asia's second fastest growing economy. Vietnam also seems poised to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) just before or after the APEC meeting. The WTO entry will be a major milestone in the country's post-cold war integration into the world.
The good relations between Washington and Hanoi can be attributed to two factors: (1) a pragmatic approach by both countries since normalization in 1995, focusing on present and future mutual benefits rather than obsessing about the past, and; (2) more recently, the realization by both parties that we have no strategic conflict and, in fact, have important areas of strategic convergence.
1995 - 2003: Reconciliation and Trade
Until fairly recently, the U.S. approach to Vietnam was separate from any strategic plan for the East Asia region. Beginning in the early 1990s, the process of normalization involved a series of steady yet cautious steps whose pace was set by single-issue interest groups: POW-MIA families seeking to account for their missing loved ones, veterans seeking reconciliation, Vietnamese refugees wanting reunification with family members left behind, humanitarian and educational institutions, and American businesses seeking to export to Vietnam or invest there. Vietnam has seemed motivated primarily by its wish for access to U.S. markets and investments and by the importance of U.S. support for admission to the world's leading clubs, from APEC to the WTO.
As bilateral ties strengthened in the late 1990s, the focus turned toward economic opportunities. Two-way trade has grown over five-fold since a bilateral trade agreement was signed in December 2001, followed quickly by textile and civil aviation agreements. The U.S. is now Vietnam's biggest trade partner. U.S. investment in the country grew more slowly but is now a significant factor in Vietnam's growth. Intel's announcement last February that it will build a $605 million chip plant and testing facility in Ho Chi Minh City was a significant event in the country's progress beyond garments and shoes to higher levels of manufacturing. A Vietnamese leader told me recently that the country's decision in 2005 to give Lockheed Martin the contract to build and launch the country's first commercial satellite, a sensitive item, was an important symbol of trust and strong ties.
This healthy economic relationship has been accompanied by significant humanitarian and educational cooperation. In 2004 President Bush decided that Vietnam, which had taken a very responsible approach to the SARS epidemic, would be the only Asian country to benefit from a special presidential fund for HIV/AIDS. In the educational field, the U.S. government contributes more than ten million dollars each year toward Fulbright and other programs for Vietnam, a greater amount than for any other country.
Post-2003: Strategic Dimension Added (Quietly)
Until the second half of 2003, this progress moved at a slow pace. Important elements in each society remained wary or even opposed to closer ties. Complete normalization, including military, intelligence, and law enforcement cooperation, only became possible when each side began to see the other as useful in maintaining regional balance with China.
By the second half of 2003 both governments were doing some strategic reassessment. For nearly two years after September 11, 2001, Washington had described Sino-U.S. ties as the "best since 1979" as our government depended on Beijing's cooperation in counter-terrorism and in controlling weapons proliferators such as North Korea. But as the Bush administration approached the end of its first term, Washington's focus returned to the inherently competitive nature of our relationship with Beijing. Sino-American ties were now described by Bush as a "complicated" mix of cooperation and competition. The concept of "hedging" relations with China against the uncertainty of how Beijing will use its new power and influence became a central tenet of U.S. policy. Vietnam, with its long history of troubled relations with its huge neighbor, was seen by some Washington policy makers-especially in the Pentagon-as an obvious partner.
At the same time in late 2003, Vietnam was becoming concerned that China's influence was rising in Southeast Asia while the U.S. appeared to be hopelessly distracted in the Mideast. Vietnamese leaders informed us they would now welcome major steps that they had resisted for years. In rapid succession, then-Defense Minister Pham Van Tra visited Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld at the Pentagon, the first U.S. Navy ship since 1975 visited Saigon Port, our access to top leaders became much easier, and we began a dialogue on strategic issues that Hanoi had previously considered off-limits. This pattern continued with then-Prime Minister Phan Van Khai's visit to Washington in June 2005, the first by a Chief of State of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Several more U.S. naval ships have visited Saigon Port and Danang and the two countries signed military and law enforcement cooperation agreements that had been stalled for years.
This increased strategic alignment is an important development but should not be exaggerated. Vietnam remains wary of the U.S. While Hanoi values America's role in maintaining a regional balance of power, it is suspicious of our proselytizing for democracy, human rights, and religious freedom. More importantly, Vietnam will never want to be seen as part of a containment policy against China. It will look over its shoulder to make sure its big brother is not unduly provoked. The Bush administration understands Hanoi's sensitivity, which poses no problem for America's overall strategy. Containment of China would be an impossible objective and Vietnam's role in a policy of "hedging" will be a modest one.
This constructive relationship seems likely to follow its pattern of steady, careful progress. The Vietnamese leadership continues to seek new foreign investment and integration with the world, goals that require good relations with America. The U.S. will continue to have differences with Vietnam on human rights. Pressure from Vietnamese-Americans, fundamentalist Protestants, and human rights activists continue to generate Congressional and Administration attention on cases of repression of house churches, cyber dissidents, and others who defy the political order. But, the Administration clearly is determined not to hold the entire relationship with Vietnam hostage to any one issue - including human rights. The U.S. will continue to value Vietnam's dynamic economy, its increasingly sophisticated leadership and its quietly growing leadership role in Southeast Asia.
The author served as United States ambassador to Vietnam, 2001-2004.
Main Trends of Russia’s Foreign Policy in Transforming East and Southeast Asia
8/2008-In order to understand Russia’s foreign policy toward East Asia we should take into consideration the current state of affairs and main trends in Russia and the region. Then it is possible to project what Russia should do to provide its interests in East Asia. So what is going on in Russia? Vladimir Putin inherited the country from Boris Yeltsin with a ruined economy, smoldering armed conflicts, and a poor populace. According to official statistics, under Yeltsin Russia’s GDP declined by roughly 60% - which is unprecedented in peace time - with all the ensuing consequences. Russia became weak and concentrated upon domestic problems, and by 1998 it had lost its erstwhile role and almost all influence in East Asia. Under Vladimir Putin, Russia managed to match its own GDP of 1990 only in 2006! Putin proved effective at stopping political and economic chaos, soothing armed conflicts inside Russia, and restoring a level of social and economic development. As a result, Russia has returned to the world stage as a strong state. It is expected that new president Dmitry Medvedev will continue that political course and that the energy dimension will become more considerable in Russia’s foreign policy as President Medvedev previously served as Chairman of the Board of Directors of Gazprom.
Russia's President Vladimir Putin and President-elect Dmitry Medvedev attend a meeting
During Russia’s decline, the situation in East Asia, including Southeast Asia, changed a lot. First of all, the region as a whole has undergone rapid economic development and is transforming in a China-centric way. There are several important reasons for the increase of Chinese influence over the last 10 years. Most generally, China has shown impressive economic growth, and the regional balance of power has essentially shifted in China’s favor. The financial crisis of 1997-1998 created conditions especially favorable for Chinese economic and political expansion. Some Southeast Asian political leaders accused the U.S. of organizing this crisis, and Beijing recognized the opportunity. China began to undertake a very active policy in the region: it refused to revalue its currency and even provided direct support to the most affected countries.
After the crisis, when the ASEAN countries had lost considerable amounts of foreign direct investment, China proposed the creation of a free trade area, excluding Japan and South Korea, and received support at the 2001 ASEAN summit in Brunei. Japan is the most economically developed East Asian country, but it has foreign military bases on its territory and Japan’s foreign policy in the East Asian region is considered to be dependent on decisions taken by the U.S. War crimes committed by the Japanese army during World War II are still remembered by the local populations in China, both Koreas, and Southeast Asian countries. The unfortunate historical background and associations make modern Japanese dominance difficult; in a mid-term perspective Japan has no chance of being accepted as a regional political leader to promote East Asian interests.
China’s “ASEAN Plus One” plan (in Russia, it is usually called “China Plus ASEAN”) was motivated more by politics than economics; in the economic aspect China-ASEAN cooperation is much more favorable to the ASEAN countries than to China. All these factors contributed to the rising of local pan-Asian ideas. In the context of current financial instability in the U.S. and the falling dollar, for example, the concept of an Asian currency unit (ACU) should be noticed. It was proposed in 2006 as a weighted index of currencies for ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan, and South Korea) to stabilize the region’s financial markets. The improved financial interaction between related central banks could prevent such events as Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998.
China’s increasingly centrality in regional affairs will underline this pan-Asianism, and it poses both challenges and opportunities for regional community building. Southeast Asia considers China as a new regional leader that could provide more favorable opportunities to ASEAN countries in their economic development, and in fact can provide an economic umbrella. The creation of China-centered free trade area in East Asia in general is not difficult to imagine, and China’s economic growth and centrality will inevitably be converted into political influence and will provoke significant security changes first in Southeast Asia and later in East Asia as a whole. In context of practical absence of regional security system, the rise of China will obviously provoke a significant change in East Asian order. Such a China-centered transformation of the region would be contrary to U.S. interests.
The Vietnam question
In these circumstances, Vietnam is viewed as an especially significant country in Southeast Asia because of its geopolitical disposition on the continent, close to China. Vietnam remains a flashpoint of rivalry between major powers, not only because of its strategic location along vital Asian trade routes, but also because of the vast prospected oil reserves under the South China Sea. It is clear that intelligent use of the Vietnam factor could either hamper or accelerate China’s southward strategic expansion. Various dispositions are considered not only in Washington, but also in Beijing, Hanoi, and Moscow; the players involved in these geopolitical calculations are mutually suspicious, and the future alignment of forces is not clear yet. But the “battle for Vietnam” will have far-reaching consequences for regional development, and so far China has acted more successfully than the others. Beijing is helped both by its own economic success and growing power, and recent international events.
Despite its increasing positive influence in Hanoi, China is very sensitive to recent contacts between Vietnam and the U.S. As reported in the Russian mass media in 2005, “… the U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert B. Zoellick’s visit to Vietnam provoked real turmoil in Beijing. The Central Committee held an extraordinary session and the whole evening was devoted to discussion of the ‘Vietnam question.’ The phantom of ‘color’ revolution appeared in the region which is considered as a main direction of economic and political Chinese expansion… In late May, Hu Jintao gave a special paper at a closed Party conference…‘To win opposition without fire: how to prevent U.S. and European attempts to organize ‘color’ revolutions in China’s neighboring countries and how to destroy U.S. plans to organize ‘color’ revolution in China.’”[1]
According to American experts, Vietnam should seek an alliance in order to offset the unfavorable balance of power that is evident in its rivalry with China over small islands in the South China Sea. In this connection Vietnam is viewed by the U.S. as a natural alliance partner.[2] But in the context of previous wars, recent American ideological pressing on “human rights” and “religious freedom” is considered by Vietnamese authorities as the threat to the stability of their regime. Vietnam is regarded by the U.S. as one of the most effective tools that could stop Chinese expansion in a southward direction, but some recognize that “Vietnam will never want to be seen as part of a containment policy against China.”[3] Hanoi is certainly worried by a possible regional stand-off between China and the U.S. and does not want to be played in the same way Afghanistan was as part of efforts to contain the Soviet southward expansion 30 years ago. Existence between hammer and anvil is not new to Vietnam and the general rule is the same - the more powers involved in the geopolitical game, the more space Hanoi has to maneuver. So the question of which orientation (toward Beijing or Washington) is more favorable to Vietnam in the current geopolitical situation remains open. It is well-known that Vietnam is very skillful in balancing between major powers, and through its history has traditionally followed a very flexible policy.
In this context Russia is the only involved country which never invaded Vietnam and has always maintained a balanced policy vis-à-vis Hanoi. Conversely, Vietnam is viewed in Moscow as a traditional and reliable friend in Southeast Asia. East Asian powers, including Russia, could influence the development of a China-centric Asia by their foreign policies vis-à-vis Vietnam, but of course the situation will also depend on the position that Vietnam develops independently.
Developments in Russia’s foreign policy
The issues of “unilateral and illegitimate actions” as well as “disdain for international law” and “uncontained hyper use of force” were brought up by Vladimir Putin at the Munich Conference on Security Policy in February 2007,[4] and his views are supported by many countries. Asian governments fear that the U.S. will use the “war on terror” as a pretext to interfere in their internal affairs. Such an attitude toward U.S. policy in the “non-western world,” especially in the context of events related to the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan and Iraq, has provoked the regional arms race in East and Southeast Asia. As a result, there is the strong wish to foster regional integration and to find a reliable security umbrella provided by local, East Asian power.
During the “reforms” of the 1990s, Russia lost influence in East Asia. Later, as Russia went forward and began to develop its economy, its activities in East Asia became more and more numerous and reasonable. Indeed, the East Asian region will play a steadily increasing role in Russia’s foreign policy. Russia’s strategy in the region is aimed at maintaining the status quo and the balance of forces between the major powers. The smaller states of the region conduct a policy of maneuvering between the United States and China, but as noted above, in the last 10 years they have become oriented more and more toward Beijing. The Southeast Asian countries view China-centered regional cooperation as a model that could protect them from the influence of “hostile forces.” They regard China’s economic growth and prospective political umbrella as an opportunity for developing their own economies.
Now Russia has come back ready to take a more active part in world affairs. Russia is consistently developing multivector cooperation with various nations not only on a bilateral level but also in the framework of key international and regional organizations. The current state of affairs in East Asia should be viewed as one of unstable equilibrium. There are several high intensity points around China (the Korean peninsula, the Taiwan Strait, the South China Sea, Vietnam, Tibet, the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, and Central Asia). Each of these flashpoints has huge destructive potential and could be regarded as a part of U.S. power projection system.
A reanimated Russia and a rising China are members of UN Security Council and Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). For example, in August 2007, the Russian and Chinese Ministers of Foreign Affairs proposed ASEAN countries to advance security cooperation in the frameworks of the SCO. Russian President Vladimir Putin took part in various summits: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Organization of the Islamic Conference, and the East Asia Summit. All these activities enhanced Russia’s cooperation with East Asian countries and reinforced its role in regional affairs.
Energy security is one of the most discussed topics of Russia’s foreign policy. The East Asian region is a net oil importer, as is well-known, and the problem of energy security is extremely important. As East Asia is the fastest developing region, its dependence on crude oil imports will rise in the foreseeable future. This has prompted Northeast and Southeast Asian countries to display a growing interest in energy cooperation with Russia, recognizing that Russia is the world’s second largest oil exporter after Saudi Arabia, and has the biggest gas reserves. Russia plans to make its contribution to regional energy security by building pipelines from its oilfields to Nakhodka (Kozmino) with a branch line to Daqing in order to support the growing demand for oil in East Asia. Realization of this project could considerably increase energy security in East Asia and will enable Russia to play a more significant role in regional integration; in these ways Russia could support stability and economic growth in East Asia.
The most important strategic goal of Russia’s foreign policy in East Asia is to become involved in regional integration, primarily with neighbor countries and traditional allies, in order to have more opportunities to develop East Siberia and the Russian Far East. So the main directions of Russian foreign policy in the region support that goal. Russia hopes to advance cooperation with China, Japan, North and South Korea, and the ASEAN countries. Russia will try to maintain the balance of power and develop large scale economic cooperation with East and South East Asian countries. At the same time, Russia should promote its interests strictly and avoid any possible confrontation or destabilization, especially along its borders, as well as in the Korean peninsula and the Taiwan Strait.
Russia is vitally interested in the maintenance of peace, normalization, and predictability on the Korean peninsula, because it still plans to develop one prospective project – a railway through Russia connecting both North and South Koreas to the EU. Realization of such a plan will help transform the current stand-off to a situation of mutually beneficial economic cooperation. The Korean part of this project is exceptionally important. That is why Russia is deeply involved in the Six-Party Talks and supports denuclearization of the Korean peninsula, but North Korea’s concern over “unilateral and illegitimate actions” also should be taken into consideration. The problem of North Korea’s security is really difficult, because “firm guarantees” and general declarations are not believed any more. This problem was highlighted by Vladimir Putin in Munich when he mentioned “guarantees that were made and that are not being observed today”[5] regarding current NATO expansion toward Russia’s boarders. This lesson was soon learned by the international community, first of all in East Asia, and it resulted directly and immediately in a lack of trust and an unprecedented arms race.
The Taiwan Strait is relatively far from Russian borders, but the situation there could affect China, Russia’s strategic partner in the framework of the SCO. In 1992 Russia tried to advance economic cooperation with Taipei, but this idea was soon rejected. Later Russia’s position was definitely clarified, on July 18, 2000. According to the Beijing Declaration, Russia recognizes that “the government of the People's Republic of China is the only legitimate government representing China, and that Taiwan is an inalienable part of the Chinese territory … The Taiwan issue is exclusively the internal affair of China and involvement of outside forces is inadmissible.”[6] Russia is very sensitive to security developments along its borders. Any conflict with China or North and South Korea would affect Russia, because it would mean a considerable destabilization of the entire East Asian region with unpredictable consequences.
During the last eight years Russia has acted as a responsible member of international community, and according to its foreign policy priorities, all conflicts should be resolved on the basis of international law. In this regard Russia’s position is very clear and predictable. One of Moscow’s main tasks is to build a constructive relationship with the United States, an extremely important component in preserving the equilibrium and balance of power and enhancing stability and security in East and Southeast Asia. The diversification of Russia’s exports, which so far are limited mainly to raw materials, military-technical cooperation, and energy security issues, remains one of the most essentials tasks. But in comparison with the 1990s, current results could be considered as significant progress.
It is supposed in Asia that Russia does not pose a threat to any country in the region and could strengthen regional security and stability by its role in international affairs. The Russian Federation does not need any kind of conflicts and does not have plans to overthrow local political regimes through “peaceful transformation” or “color revolutions.” Russia therefore is considered in East and Southeast Asia as a reliable and responsible partner which is open to honest cooperation with all countries on the basis of mutually profitable economic relations without confrontation and ideological stereotypes.
Russia's President Vladimir Putin and President-elect Dmitry Medvedev attend a meeting
During Russia’s decline, the situation in East Asia, including Southeast Asia, changed a lot. First of all, the region as a whole has undergone rapid economic development and is transforming in a China-centric way. There are several important reasons for the increase of Chinese influence over the last 10 years. Most generally, China has shown impressive economic growth, and the regional balance of power has essentially shifted in China’s favor. The financial crisis of 1997-1998 created conditions especially favorable for Chinese economic and political expansion. Some Southeast Asian political leaders accused the U.S. of organizing this crisis, and Beijing recognized the opportunity. China began to undertake a very active policy in the region: it refused to revalue its currency and even provided direct support to the most affected countries.
After the crisis, when the ASEAN countries had lost considerable amounts of foreign direct investment, China proposed the creation of a free trade area, excluding Japan and South Korea, and received support at the 2001 ASEAN summit in Brunei. Japan is the most economically developed East Asian country, but it has foreign military bases on its territory and Japan’s foreign policy in the East Asian region is considered to be dependent on decisions taken by the U.S. War crimes committed by the Japanese army during World War II are still remembered by the local populations in China, both Koreas, and Southeast Asian countries. The unfortunate historical background and associations make modern Japanese dominance difficult; in a mid-term perspective Japan has no chance of being accepted as a regional political leader to promote East Asian interests.
China’s “ASEAN Plus One” plan (in Russia, it is usually called “China Plus ASEAN”) was motivated more by politics than economics; in the economic aspect China-ASEAN cooperation is much more favorable to the ASEAN countries than to China. All these factors contributed to the rising of local pan-Asian ideas. In the context of current financial instability in the U.S. and the falling dollar, for example, the concept of an Asian currency unit (ACU) should be noticed. It was proposed in 2006 as a weighted index of currencies for ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan, and South Korea) to stabilize the region’s financial markets. The improved financial interaction between related central banks could prevent such events as Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998.
China’s increasingly centrality in regional affairs will underline this pan-Asianism, and it poses both challenges and opportunities for regional community building. Southeast Asia considers China as a new regional leader that could provide more favorable opportunities to ASEAN countries in their economic development, and in fact can provide an economic umbrella. The creation of China-centered free trade area in East Asia in general is not difficult to imagine, and China’s economic growth and centrality will inevitably be converted into political influence and will provoke significant security changes first in Southeast Asia and later in East Asia as a whole. In context of practical absence of regional security system, the rise of China will obviously provoke a significant change in East Asian order. Such a China-centered transformation of the region would be contrary to U.S. interests.
The Vietnam question
In these circumstances, Vietnam is viewed as an especially significant country in Southeast Asia because of its geopolitical disposition on the continent, close to China. Vietnam remains a flashpoint of rivalry between major powers, not only because of its strategic location along vital Asian trade routes, but also because of the vast prospected oil reserves under the South China Sea. It is clear that intelligent use of the Vietnam factor could either hamper or accelerate China’s southward strategic expansion. Various dispositions are considered not only in Washington, but also in Beijing, Hanoi, and Moscow; the players involved in these geopolitical calculations are mutually suspicious, and the future alignment of forces is not clear yet. But the “battle for Vietnam” will have far-reaching consequences for regional development, and so far China has acted more successfully than the others. Beijing is helped both by its own economic success and growing power, and recent international events.
Despite its increasing positive influence in Hanoi, China is very sensitive to recent contacts between Vietnam and the U.S. As reported in the Russian mass media in 2005, “… the U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert B. Zoellick’s visit to Vietnam provoked real turmoil in Beijing. The Central Committee held an extraordinary session and the whole evening was devoted to discussion of the ‘Vietnam question.’ The phantom of ‘color’ revolution appeared in the region which is considered as a main direction of economic and political Chinese expansion… In late May, Hu Jintao gave a special paper at a closed Party conference…‘To win opposition without fire: how to prevent U.S. and European attempts to organize ‘color’ revolutions in China’s neighboring countries and how to destroy U.S. plans to organize ‘color’ revolution in China.’”[1]
According to American experts, Vietnam should seek an alliance in order to offset the unfavorable balance of power that is evident in its rivalry with China over small islands in the South China Sea. In this connection Vietnam is viewed by the U.S. as a natural alliance partner.[2] But in the context of previous wars, recent American ideological pressing on “human rights” and “religious freedom” is considered by Vietnamese authorities as the threat to the stability of their regime. Vietnam is regarded by the U.S. as one of the most effective tools that could stop Chinese expansion in a southward direction, but some recognize that “Vietnam will never want to be seen as part of a containment policy against China.”[3] Hanoi is certainly worried by a possible regional stand-off between China and the U.S. and does not want to be played in the same way Afghanistan was as part of efforts to contain the Soviet southward expansion 30 years ago. Existence between hammer and anvil is not new to Vietnam and the general rule is the same - the more powers involved in the geopolitical game, the more space Hanoi has to maneuver. So the question of which orientation (toward Beijing or Washington) is more favorable to Vietnam in the current geopolitical situation remains open. It is well-known that Vietnam is very skillful in balancing between major powers, and through its history has traditionally followed a very flexible policy.
In this context Russia is the only involved country which never invaded Vietnam and has always maintained a balanced policy vis-à-vis Hanoi. Conversely, Vietnam is viewed in Moscow as a traditional and reliable friend in Southeast Asia. East Asian powers, including Russia, could influence the development of a China-centric Asia by their foreign policies vis-à-vis Vietnam, but of course the situation will also depend on the position that Vietnam develops independently.
Developments in Russia’s foreign policy
The issues of “unilateral and illegitimate actions” as well as “disdain for international law” and “uncontained hyper use of force” were brought up by Vladimir Putin at the Munich Conference on Security Policy in February 2007,[4] and his views are supported by many countries. Asian governments fear that the U.S. will use the “war on terror” as a pretext to interfere in their internal affairs. Such an attitude toward U.S. policy in the “non-western world,” especially in the context of events related to the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan and Iraq, has provoked the regional arms race in East and Southeast Asia. As a result, there is the strong wish to foster regional integration and to find a reliable security umbrella provided by local, East Asian power.
During the “reforms” of the 1990s, Russia lost influence in East Asia. Later, as Russia went forward and began to develop its economy, its activities in East Asia became more and more numerous and reasonable. Indeed, the East Asian region will play a steadily increasing role in Russia’s foreign policy. Russia’s strategy in the region is aimed at maintaining the status quo and the balance of forces between the major powers. The smaller states of the region conduct a policy of maneuvering between the United States and China, but as noted above, in the last 10 years they have become oriented more and more toward Beijing. The Southeast Asian countries view China-centered regional cooperation as a model that could protect them from the influence of “hostile forces.” They regard China’s economic growth and prospective political umbrella as an opportunity for developing their own economies.
Now Russia has come back ready to take a more active part in world affairs. Russia is consistently developing multivector cooperation with various nations not only on a bilateral level but also in the framework of key international and regional organizations. The current state of affairs in East Asia should be viewed as one of unstable equilibrium. There are several high intensity points around China (the Korean peninsula, the Taiwan Strait, the South China Sea, Vietnam, Tibet, the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, and Central Asia). Each of these flashpoints has huge destructive potential and could be regarded as a part of U.S. power projection system.
A reanimated Russia and a rising China are members of UN Security Council and Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). For example, in August 2007, the Russian and Chinese Ministers of Foreign Affairs proposed ASEAN countries to advance security cooperation in the frameworks of the SCO. Russian President Vladimir Putin took part in various summits: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Organization of the Islamic Conference, and the East Asia Summit. All these activities enhanced Russia’s cooperation with East Asian countries and reinforced its role in regional affairs.
Energy security is one of the most discussed topics of Russia’s foreign policy. The East Asian region is a net oil importer, as is well-known, and the problem of energy security is extremely important. As East Asia is the fastest developing region, its dependence on crude oil imports will rise in the foreseeable future. This has prompted Northeast and Southeast Asian countries to display a growing interest in energy cooperation with Russia, recognizing that Russia is the world’s second largest oil exporter after Saudi Arabia, and has the biggest gas reserves. Russia plans to make its contribution to regional energy security by building pipelines from its oilfields to Nakhodka (Kozmino) with a branch line to Daqing in order to support the growing demand for oil in East Asia. Realization of this project could considerably increase energy security in East Asia and will enable Russia to play a more significant role in regional integration; in these ways Russia could support stability and economic growth in East Asia.
The most important strategic goal of Russia’s foreign policy in East Asia is to become involved in regional integration, primarily with neighbor countries and traditional allies, in order to have more opportunities to develop East Siberia and the Russian Far East. So the main directions of Russian foreign policy in the region support that goal. Russia hopes to advance cooperation with China, Japan, North and South Korea, and the ASEAN countries. Russia will try to maintain the balance of power and develop large scale economic cooperation with East and South East Asian countries. At the same time, Russia should promote its interests strictly and avoid any possible confrontation or destabilization, especially along its borders, as well as in the Korean peninsula and the Taiwan Strait.
Russia is vitally interested in the maintenance of peace, normalization, and predictability on the Korean peninsula, because it still plans to develop one prospective project – a railway through Russia connecting both North and South Koreas to the EU. Realization of such a plan will help transform the current stand-off to a situation of mutually beneficial economic cooperation. The Korean part of this project is exceptionally important. That is why Russia is deeply involved in the Six-Party Talks and supports denuclearization of the Korean peninsula, but North Korea’s concern over “unilateral and illegitimate actions” also should be taken into consideration. The problem of North Korea’s security is really difficult, because “firm guarantees” and general declarations are not believed any more. This problem was highlighted by Vladimir Putin in Munich when he mentioned “guarantees that were made and that are not being observed today”[5] regarding current NATO expansion toward Russia’s boarders. This lesson was soon learned by the international community, first of all in East Asia, and it resulted directly and immediately in a lack of trust and an unprecedented arms race.
The Taiwan Strait is relatively far from Russian borders, but the situation there could affect China, Russia’s strategic partner in the framework of the SCO. In 1992 Russia tried to advance economic cooperation with Taipei, but this idea was soon rejected. Later Russia’s position was definitely clarified, on July 18, 2000. According to the Beijing Declaration, Russia recognizes that “the government of the People's Republic of China is the only legitimate government representing China, and that Taiwan is an inalienable part of the Chinese territory … The Taiwan issue is exclusively the internal affair of China and involvement of outside forces is inadmissible.”[6] Russia is very sensitive to security developments along its borders. Any conflict with China or North and South Korea would affect Russia, because it would mean a considerable destabilization of the entire East Asian region with unpredictable consequences.
During the last eight years Russia has acted as a responsible member of international community, and according to its foreign policy priorities, all conflicts should be resolved on the basis of international law. In this regard Russia’s position is very clear and predictable. One of Moscow’s main tasks is to build a constructive relationship with the United States, an extremely important component in preserving the equilibrium and balance of power and enhancing stability and security in East and Southeast Asia. The diversification of Russia’s exports, which so far are limited mainly to raw materials, military-technical cooperation, and energy security issues, remains one of the most essentials tasks. But in comparison with the 1990s, current results could be considered as significant progress.
It is supposed in Asia that Russia does not pose a threat to any country in the region and could strengthen regional security and stability by its role in international affairs. The Russian Federation does not need any kind of conflicts and does not have plans to overthrow local political regimes through “peaceful transformation” or “color revolutions.” Russia therefore is considered in East and Southeast Asia as a reliable and responsible partner which is open to honest cooperation with all countries on the basis of mutually profitable economic relations without confrontation and ideological stereotypes.
10 Dec 2008
The Structure of Vietnam-China Relations, 1991-2008
The Structure of Vietnam-China Relations, 1991-2008
Paper for the 3rd International Conference on Vietnamese Studies, Hanoi, Vietnam December 4-7, 2008
Carlyle A. Thayer
The Structure of Vietnam-China Relations, 1991-2008
Carlyle A. Thayer *
Introduction
Much of the scholarly work that focuses on relations between Vietnam and China stresses the importance of bilateral relations (Amer 2004a and 2008, Vuving 2005 and 2006a and Womack 2006). This paper extends the framework of analysis to include the key multilateral and bilateral structures that influence this relationship. The paper is divided into three parts. The first deals with bilateral structures, the second considers multilateral structures and the third focuses on the interplay of multilateral and bilateral structures in fostering economic cooperation and managing territorial disputes.
Part one discusses the structure of bilateral relations since 1999-2000 when long-term cooperative framework agreements were reached between party and state officials. These agreements led to the creation of expert- and government-level working groups to consider key issues in dispute such as the land border, Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea (Amer 2008: 12). The long-term cooperative framework also resulted in the exchange of delegations led by high-level party and state officials.
Part two stresses the importance of multilateral structures and multilateral agreements negotiated by the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) with China prior to and after Vietnam’s membership. Among the structures and agreements considered: ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee and the Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity and Plan of Action (2005-2010). Part two also considers the influence of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) on Vietnam-China relations.
Part three reviews a number of issues relating to Sino-Vietnamese cooperation in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), Gulf of Tonkin and South China Sea and evaluates the impact of multilateral and bilateral structures in dealing effectively with these issues. The paper concludes by noting the importance role of high-level leadership meetings, including the Joint Steering Committee on Cooperation, as key structures in the management of Vietnam-China relations.
Finally, the conclusion offers a net assessment of what the structure of Vietnam’s bilateral and multilateral relations with China reveals about Vietnam’s strategy for dealing with its northern neighbour. This section critically reviews five major strategies identified in the scholarly literature: balancing, hedging, bandwagoning, engagement and omni-enmeshment.
Part 1. Bilateral Relations
After more than a decade-long estrangement (1978-89), leaders from Hanoi and Beijing met in southern China in September 1990 and agreed to normalize bilateral relations. China and Vietnam resumed high-level political contact in November 1991, pointedly only after Vietnam had agreed to a comprehensive political settlement in Cambodia. In early 1999, bilateral political relations were codified at a meeting of party leaders held in Beijing. [1]
In the period between normalization of relations and the codification of political relations, Vietnam and China inaugurated discussions at the expert level to work out a settlement of their disputes regarding the land border and Gulf of Tonkin. The first expert-level discussions were held in October 1992. A year later, government-level talks led to agreement on the principles for the settlement of territorial disputes. The land border and Gulf of Tonkin disputes were separated and each assigned to a specialist joint working group. The joint working group on land issues first met in February 1994 and concluded in December 1999 after sixteen meetings when Vietnam and China signed a treaty on the land border. The joint working group on the Gulf of Tonkin first met in March 1994 and held seventeen meetings before reaching agreement. Expert-level discussions on maritime issues (eg. the South China Sea) commenced in November 1995.
In December 2000, Vietnam and China signed two important documents, the Agreement on the Demarcation of Waters, Exclusive Economic Zones and Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Tonkin and the Agreement on Fishing Cooperation in the Gulf of Tonkin. More importantly, Vietnam and China issued a Joint Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation in the New Century.’ [2] This document set out the structure of bilateral relations through a long-term framework for cooperation. Vietnam and China established a Joint Commission for Economic and Trade Cooperation to handle their economic relations. By January 2008, the Joint Commission had met six times.
It is notable that China also negotiated similar agreements with all the other regional states. Between February 1999 and December 2000, for example, China negotiated long-term cooperative framework arrangements with the other nine ASEAN members. [3] Generally these took the form of joint statements signed by foreign ministers or vice premiers.
Defence Cooperation. Six of China’s long-term cooperative framework agreements included a reference to security cooperation (Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, the Philippines, and Laos). Subsequently, several of these long-term framework agreements have been enhanced through additional joint declarations and/or memoranda of understanding. It is notable that no defence clause was included in the Sino-Vietnamese agreement, perhaps because of the contentious nature of unresolved territorial disputes in the South China Sea. According to the Vietnam-China joint statement, ‘[b]oth sides will refrain from taking any action that might complicate and escalate disputes, resorting to force or making threats with force’.
Table 1
Exchange Visits by Defence Ministers,
November 1991-September 2008
To China
To Vietnam
July 1991
Le Duc Anh
May 1993
Chi Haotian
December 1992
Doan Khue
February 2001
Chi Haotian
June 1998
Pham Van Tra
April 2006
Cao Gangchuan
July 2000
Pham Van Tra
October 2005
Pham Van Tra
August 2007
Phung Quang Thanh
Defence contacts between Vietnam and China were first opened with the exchange of delegations by the external relations departments of their respective defence ministries in February and May 1992, respectively. Data for the period since normalization in November 2001 to September 2008 reveals an imbalance in the exchange of delegations at the ministerial level. Vietnam’s defence minister visited China five times, while China’s defence minister has made only three visits to Hanoi (see Table 1). The exchanges at the level of vice minister, Chief of the General Staff, and General Political Department are more balanced. Contact at the level of service chiefs has been confined to one visit by the PLA Navy Air Force in 1997.
China and ASEAN members carried out seventy-one bilateral high-level defence visits in the period from 2002 to 2006. Sixteen were ministerial level visits. Reciprocal visits by defence ministers were conducted by China with five countries including Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Vietnam and China exchanged nine high-level delegations during this period. Between 2001 and 2006, China and Southeast Asia conducted eleven naval goodwill visits involving seven regional states. Chinese warships visited Vietnam, Singapore (twice), Thailand and Brunei. The Chinese visit to Vietnam took place in November 2001 when a People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Jiangwei-II guided missile frigate visited Ho Chi Minh City. The Vietnamese navy has yet to make a return visit.
Defence relations between China and Vietnam appear almost entirely focused on exchanges of views on ‘army-building’, regional security, ideological matters and border security issues. Since the normalization of relations both China and Vietnam have undertaken to de-mine and to dispose of unexploded ordnance in their frontier area. Since the signing of a treaty on their common border in 1999, both sides began to physically demarcate this area. In April 2005, China and Vietnam also commenced extremely low-key ‘consultations on defensive security’ in Beijing. [4]
In July 2005, President Tran Duc Luong made an official five-day state visit to China at the invitation of President Hu Jintao. The two leaders reaffirmed their commitment to step up joint development and negotiations for a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea (Montaperto 2005c). The joint statement significantly declared, ‘between now and the end of 2005, the two sides will conduct joint investigation on fishery resources in joint fishing areas, so as to strive for launching joint patrols in Beibu Bay (Gulf of Tonkin) by the two navies and start the negotiation of the demarcation of the sea areas beyond the mouth of Beibu Bay (Gulf of Tonkin) as early as possible.’ [5]
In October 2005, the Chinese and Vietnamese Defence Ministers, Cao Gangchuan and Pham Van Tra, respectively, reached agreement on the conduct of joint naval patrols in the Gulf of Tonkin. The purpose of the patrols was to strengthen cooperation between the two navies and maintain security of the fishing and oil exploration activities in this area. The defence ministers tentatively discussed cooperation between their national defense industries. [6]
During the first quarter of 2006, Hanoi received Jia Qinglin, a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, and Defence Minister, Cao Gangchuan (Sutter 2006). Cao came to complete arrangements for joint naval patrols and to promote China’s military technology and professional training. [7] Cao was also briefed on the tenth party congress. On 27th April, the Chinese and Vietnamese navies conducted their first joint patrol in the Gulf of Tonkin. This was a first for the PLAN. Vietnam’s new Defence Minister, Phung Quang Thanh, made a return visit to Beijing in August to discuss cooperation between national defence industries and reciprocal training of high-level military officers. [8]
Party Secretary General Nong Duc Manh made an official visit to Beijing from 22-26 August. 2006. The state media noted that this was his first overseas trip since his re-election as party leader. Manh and his counterpart, Hu Jintao, agreed to boost trade, speed up border demarcation by the end of 2008, and step up discussions on the South China Sea (Sutter and Huang 2006b). The two leaders also reached agreement on joint projects in energy development, particularly in the Gulf of Tonkin. [9] The joint communiqué noted that ‘both sides spoke positively of… the joint patrol conducted by the navies of the two countries in the Tonkin Gulf’. [10]
In October 2006, Vietnam’s Minister of Public Security visited Beijing to follow up on proposals for security cooperation. Later that month, Lt. General Le Van Dung, head of the Vietnam People’s Army General Political Department, journeyed to China to discuss professional military education and training exchanges. [11] General Dung’s visit to the National Defence University in Beijing suggested that Vietnam would send military officers there in the future.
In late October-early November, China commemorated the fifteenth anniversary of the establishment of dialogue relations with ASEAN by hosting a gala summit of heads of government in Nanning. [12] Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung attended and held a separate high-level meeting with Premier Wen Jiabao on 31st October. They agreed to complete negotiations on a framework treaty on economic and trade cooperation. [13] Further, they reached accord to complete the delineation of the land border by 2008 and to step up negotiations on demarcation of maritime waters outside the Tonkin Gulf. They also discussed major joint construction projects involving upgrading rail and road links. The first meeting of the Steering Committee on Vietnam-China Bilateral Relations was convened on 11th November in Hanoi at deputy prime ministerial level.
President Hu Jintao made a separate state visit to Vietnam (15-17 November) in conjunction with his attendance at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit. During his visit China and Vietnam signed a framework agreement on economic and trade cooperation and a memorandum of understanding on the ‘two corridors, one circle’ cooperation. [14] The two leaders also agreed to accelerate cooperation over a broad range of issues including joint exploration for oil and gas in the Gulf of Tonkin. Finally, both leaders discussed their territorial disputes in the South China Sea (Sutter and Huang 2006c).
President Nguyen Minh Triet made a return visit to Beijing in May 2007. Triet and Hu reviewed bilateral economic and political relations (Suter and Huang 2007b). They reached agreement on the value of continued high-level visits and the efficacy of the Joint Steering Committee on Cooperation. A joint statement issued after their discussions affirmed the leaders’ commitment to complete the demarcation of the land border by 2008 and to step up joint oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Tonkin. Both sides agreed to refrain from taking unilateral actions that would upset the status quo or exacerbate conflict in the South China Sea.
In August 2007, the Chinese and Vietnamese defence ministers, Cao Gangchuan and Phung Quang Thanh, signed an Agreement on Border Defence Cooperation between their respective ministries. [15] On 8th November, the border defence agreement came into force. It set out the ‘basic principles on the coordinating relationship, information regulations and the responsibility of the two countries’ border protection and management forces.’ [16]
Since normalization of relations in 1991, Vietnam and China have created a dense network of mechanisms to manage their bilateral relations. Based on the 1999 party-to-party agreement and the 2000 joint declaration on comprehensive cooperation in the new centuryg, Vietnam and China have signed fifty-four state-level agreements and fifty-nine bilateral cooperation documents. By 2008, Vietnam and China now exchange more than one hundred delegations at all levels annually including the regular exchange visits by party leaders, prime ministers/premiers and other key ministers (foreign affairs, defence, public security etc.).
In 1993 Vietnam and China reached agreement on the basic principles to manage their common border and maritime territory. This led to agreement on demarcating the land border in 1999 and the Gulf of Tonkin in 2000. By 2008 China and Vietnam put in place approximately eighty-five percent of the approved border markers. A border management treaty is currently under negotiation. The agreement on the Gulf of Tonkin was accompanied by an agreement on fishing cooperation. Subsequently, in 2004, both sides negotiated a protocol on a joint fishing area and agreed to joint naval patrols.
Part 1 has stressed the importance of this network of joint agreements in structuring the bilateral relationship. Key documents provide for the regular exchange of high-level visits by party and state leaders that have proven to be effective in addressing pressing issues. Part 2 will extend this analysis to a consideration of multilateral structures that influence the management of relations between Vietnam and China.
Part 2. Multilateral Structures
This section discusses the structure of Vietnam’s relations with China through Vietnam’s membership in three multilateral institutions: ASEAN, the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Greater Mekong Subregion.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Formal linkages between China and ASEAN date to 1991 when Foreign Minister Qian Qichen attended the 24th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Kuala Lumpur as a guest of the Malaysian government. Qian expressed China’s interest in developing cooperation in the field of science and technology. ASEAN responded positively and in September 1993 dispatched ASEAN Secretary General Dato Ajit Singh to Beijing to follow up on Qian’s proposal. Singh held discussions with Vice Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan. In July 1994, ASEAN and China reached formal agreement to establish two joint committees — one on science and technology cooperation and the other on economic and trade cooperation. ASEAN and China also agreed to open consultations on political and security issues at the senior official level. The first ASEAN-China Senior Officials Meeting was held in Hangzhou in April 1995. Vietnam joined ASEAN in July 1995 and assumed the obligation to honour all past ASEAN agreements with China.
In 1996, China was accorded official dialogue partner status by ASEAN. As an ASEAN dialogue partner, China commenced regular participation in the annual ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conference consultation process. This took the form of a meeting between ASEAN and its ten dialogue partners (ASEAN Ten Plus Ten), and a separate meeting between ASEAN members and each of its dialogue partners (ASEAN Ten Plus One). In February 1997, ASEAN and China formalized their cooperation by establishing the ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee (ACJCC). The ACJCC first met in Beijing where it was agreed that it would ‘act as the coordinator for all the ASEAN-China mechanisms at the working level’ [17]
In December 1997 at the 2nd Informal ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur, ASEAN initiated a new process with the heads of state/government from China, Japan and South Korea that has since become known as the ASEAN Plus Three process. ASEAN also met separately with each head of state/government. After the ASEAN-China meeting the leaders issued a joint statement that ‘reaffirmed their common interest in developing the Mekong Basin and pledged to strengthened their support for the riparian countries by promoting activities in the areas of trade, tourism and transport.’ [18]
Three years later at the 4th ASEAN Informal Summit held in Singapore in November 2000, China’s Premier Zhu Rongji announced a major commitment to the development of the Mekong. At the next ASEAN summit in Brunei in November 2001, ASEAN endorsed the creation of a free trade area with China. China, for its part, proposed five areas of cooperation including development of the Mekong River basin.
China-ASEAN relations progressed to a new stage in November 2002 with the signing of three major documents: Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Between ASEAN Nations and the People’s Republic of China, Joint Declaration between China and ASEAN on Cooperation in Non-Traditional Security Fields, and Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC).
The first agreement laid the foundations for the China-ASEAN Free Trade Area. The joint declaration on non-traditional security was formalized in a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in January 2004. [19] A major advance towards the free trade area was taken in January 2007 when China and ASEAN signed the Agreement on Trade in Services at their tenth summit in Cebu, the Philippines. Originally, ASEAN sought to negotiate a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea. China resisted ASEAN diplomatic pressure to agree to a formal legally-binding code. Nevertheless, China and ASEAN were able to develop unprecedented cooperation under the umbrella of the DOC (see below for further discussion).
Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity. In October 2003, China’s zone of interaction with ASEAN was substantially enhanced when China acceded to the ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (Thayer forthcoming). The two parties then issued a joint declaration establishing an ASEAN-China strategic partnership. The joint declaration was the first formal agreement of this type between China and a regional organization, as well as a first for ASEAN itself. The joint declaration was wide-ranging and included a provision for the initiation of a new security dialogue as well as general cooperation in political matters. [20]
In July the following year, State Councilor Tang Jiaxuan raised the prospect of developing ‘enhanced strategic relations’ with ASEAN in his discussions with Secretary General Ong Keng Yong in Beijing. As a result, in late 2004, China and ASEAN drafted a five-year Plan of Action (2005-2010). This plan included, inter alia, a joint commitment to increase regular high-level bilateral visits, cooperation in the field of non-traditional security, security dialogue and military exchanges and cooperation. [21] The Plan of Action set out the following objectives:
Promote mutual confidence and trust in defense and military fields with a view to maintaining peace and stability in the region;
Conduct dialogues, consultations and seminars on security and defense issues;
Strengthen cooperation on military personnel training;
Consider observing each other’s military exercises and explore the possibility of conducting bilateral or multilateral joint military exercises; and
Explore and enhance cooperation in the field of peacekeeping.
ASEAN has been reluctant to advance military cooperation with China too quickly. In May 2004, during the course of a visit to Beijing by Malaysia’s new prime minister, Abdullah Badawi, his Chinese counterpart, Premier Wen Jiabao, suggested they consider a joint undertaking to maintain the security of sea lines of communication through the Malacca Strait. This proposal was pressed the following month by Senior Colonel Wang Zhongchun, deputy director of China’s National Defense University. In a paper presented to the China-ASEAN forum in Singapore, Wang proposed joint naval exercises and patrols and intelligence exchanges on terrorism. According to one analyst, Wang’s proposal was received coolly and with considerable skepticism by the audience (Montaperto 2004a). [22]
In September 2003, Wu Bangguo, chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, reiterated a proposal for joint oil exploration and development in areas of overlapping claims in the South China Sea. Early the following year, ASEAN and China agreed to set up a Joint Working Group to implement the DOC. In November 2004, at the 8th China-ASEAN Summit, Premier Wen Jiabao restated China’s long-standing proposal to shelve disputes in the South China Sea ‘while going for joint development.’ This led to a major break through on March 14, 2005 when the national oil companies of China, the Philippines and Vietnam signed an agreement to conduct joint seismic testing in the South China Sea. [23]
In April 2005, ASEAN and China held their eleventh Senior Officials Meeting. Vice Foreign Minister Wu Dawei stressed that the ASEAN-China strategic partnership was vital for regional security and that China supported ASEAN’s leading role in regional multilateral cooperation (Montaperto 2005b). More significantly, China agreed to participate on the Working Group on Implementing the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea.
In July 2005, President Hu Jintao reiterated China’s decade old call for joint development during the course of state visits to Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines. [24] At the same time, China and ASEAN officially set up the Joint Working Group on the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea and charged it with recommending measures to implement the agreement. The Working Group held its second meeting in Hainan in February 2006. In light of deadly pirate attacks on Chinese fishing vessels in May, China, the Philippines and Vietnam agreed to strengthen security cooperation in the South China Sea. [25]
The ASEAN-China strategic partnership was taken a step forward with the holding of the first workshop on regional security between defence officials in Beijing in July 2006. This workshop discussed maritime cooperation, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, counter terrorism and peacekeeping operations (Sutter and Huang 2006b).
In October 2006, ASEAN and China also held a heads of government Commemorative Summit in Nanning to mark the fifteenth anniversary of China’s status as a dialogue partner. Premier Wen Jiabao called for the expansion of military dialogue and exchanges and defence cooperation in such fields as maritime security, counter terrorism, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, transnational crime and the spread of infectious disease (Sutter and Huang 2006c).
In the joint statement all parties reaffirmed their commitment to the creation of an China-ASEAN Free Trade Area by 2010. Trade in goods was to be liberalized between China and the six oldest ASEAN members by that date, while the newest members (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam) were given until 2015. Ten priority areas were identified including the development of the Mekong Basin (Sutter and Huang 2006c). Finally, the leaders pledged to implement the 2002 DOC and to promote joint economic development in the South China Sea.
By the end of 2006, ASEAN and China had concluded twenty-eight ‘cooperation framework mechanisms,’ including regular consultations between senior officials on strategic and political security cooperation, a yearly conference of foreign ministers, and an annual summit meeting of government leaders (Sutter and Hoang 2006b). These developments provided a foundation for the potential development of security and defense cooperation in the future.
The 11th China-ASEAN and ASEAN Plus China summits were held in Singapore in November 2007. Premier Wen Jiabao’s keynote speeches reiterated staple themes of Chinese foreign policy (Sutter and Huang 2007d). Wen urged his Southeast Asian counterparts to step up cooperation and joint development in the South China Sea under the umbrella of the 2002 DOC. He also repeated China’s call for closer military cooperation in dealing with non-traditional threats to security. Wen also suggested exchanges among national defence academies. And, in a relatively new development, Premier Wen called for the setting up of a joint expert group to study proposals for pan-Beibu (Tonkin) Gulf economic cooperation. [26]
In March 2008, China-ASEAN military cooperation took a step forward when China hosted a high-level meeting of ASEAN senior defence officials and scholars (Sutter and Huang 2008a). The focus of the meeting was on building China-ASEAN regional and military confidence. Regional anxieties about China’s increased defence spending and force modernization was voiced by an Indonesian official who called on China to be more transparent and not to use its increased capabilities to threaten regional states.
When Vietnam joined ASEAN in July 1995 it agreed to adhere to all multilateral arrangements entered into between ASEAN and China. After joining ASEAN, Vietnam participated in ASEAN’s consensual decision-making process in shaping future relations with China. The structure of ASEAN-China relations thus forms an important part of Vietnam’s framework for the conduct of bilateral relations with its northern neighbour.
ASEAN Regional Forum. Vietnam was a founding member of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994. The ARF provides a multilateral framework for Vietnam’s defence-security relations and interaction with China and other major powers.
When China first joined the ASEAN Regional Forum it was highly suspicious about multilateral activities that might curtail its national sovereignty. Over time, however, China has come to embrace multilateral security cooperation under the auspices of the ARF (Ba 2006). China has taken a particularly active role in the ARF’s inter-sessional work program related to confidence building measures. In March 1997, for example, China hosted the Inter-Sessional Group on Confidence Building Measures, and did so again in November 2003.
In 1997, China sent representatives to the ARF meeting of Heads of Defense Colleges and hosted the 4th ARF meeting of the Heads of Defense Colleges in September 2000. This meeting was opened by Defence Minister Chi Haotian, who argued that the ARF’s stress on dialog and consultation represented a ‘new security concept’ and the trend of ‘multi-polarization’ in the region. Chi noted that regional flash points still existed, ‘hegemonism and power politics have shown new traces of development’ and ‘democracy and human rights’ were being used as excuses for intervention, and separatism was gaining ground. All these will endanger or jeopardize the security and stability of the region. That’s why we advocate that all countries adopt the new security concept built upon equality, dialogue, mutual confidence and cooperation. [27]
In 2000, China also contributed for the first time to the ARF’s Annual Security Outlook and began providing voluntary briefings on regional security.
While China’s participation in the ARF’s program of confidence building measures has evolved over time, China’s endorsement of preventive diplomacy has been more circumscribed. In a Defence White Paper issued in late 2000, China provided this cautious assessment:
China holds that the ARF should continue to focus on confidence-building measures, explore new security concepts and methods, and discuss the question of preventive diplomacy. At the same time, it believes that the parties concerned should have a full discussion first on the concept, definition, principles and scope of preventive diplomacy in the Asia-Pacific region and reach consensus in this regard (People’s Republic of China 2001).
According to one China analyst ‘two of the defining features of that document [the 2000 Defence White Paper] were the emphasis on the dominance of peace and development as forces driving global development and a corollary imperative toward implementing external policies based upon multilateral cooperative approaches’ (Montaperto 2004b). Since 2000, China has consistently promoted its new security concept as the preferred framework for multilateral cooperation. In July 2002, for example, China outlined its new security concept in a position paper presented to the annual ARF ministerial meeting.
In 2003, China launched a major initiative to further its new concept of security. At the annual ARF ministerial meeting in Phnom Penh, China proposed the creation of a Security Policy Conference comprised of senior military and civilian officials at vice minister level drawn from all ARF members. The objective of this new security mechanism was to draft a security treaty to promote ‘peace, stability and prosperity’ in the region. Chinese officials said the new treaty would give equal attention to the concerns of all ARF members and guarantee security through united action rather than seeking ‘absolute security for oneself and threaten[ing] other parties’ security’ (Breckon 2003b).
China drafted and circulated a concept paper prior to hosting the first ARF Security Policy Conference in November 2004 (Dillon and Tkacik 2005). Premier Wen Jiabao opened the conference to underscore China’s commitment to multilateral security cooperation. Delegates to this inaugural conference agreed to start modestly by considering new channels of communication to deal with counter terrorism and non-traditional threats (Montaperto 2004b).
At the 11th ARF Ministerial Meeting in 2004, China tabled a series of proposals for the future development of the ARF. These were later summarized as follows:
To maintain its forum nature and adhere to the basic principles of decision-making through consensus, taking an incremental approach, and moving at a pace comfortable to all members so as to encourage the initiative and active participation of all members; to continuously strengthen and consolidate confidence-building measures (CBMs) while actively addressing the issue of preventive diplomacy, so as to gradually find out cooperative methods and approaches for preventive diplomacy that are suitable to the region and fitting the current needs; to increase participation of defense officials, promote exchanges and cooperation among militaries of the countries concerned and give full play to the important role of the militaries in enhancing mutual trust; to highlight cooperation in non-traditional security fields such as counter-terrorism and combating transnational crimes (People’s Republic of China 2004).
In December 2004 China issued another Defense White Paper. It identified five main areas of international security cooperation: strategic consultation and dialogue; regional security cooperation; cooperation in non-traditional security fields, participating in United Nations peacekeeping operations; and military exchanges. Chapter nine highlighted the importance China placed on its interaction with ASEAN and the ASEAN Regional Forum.
The Defense White Paper also set out Beijing’s policy on international cooperation in the area of defense-related science, technology and industry including the export of military products and related technologies. According to this document, China’s exports in this sensitive area were governed by three principles: ‘It should only serve the purpose of helping the recipient state enhance its capability for legitimate self-defense; it must not impair peace, security and stability of the relevant region and the world as a whole; and it must not be used to interfere in the recipient state’s internal affairs’ (People’s Republic of China 2004, chapter seven).
The 13th ARF annual meeting was held in Kuala Lumpur in July 2006. China played an important role on the major issues of the day (North Korean missile tests and Myanmar). China demonstrated once again that the ARF remained its preferred multilateral forum for the discussion of regional political and security issues (Sutter and Huang 2006b). At the 14th ARF annual meeting in Manila in August 2007, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi once again stressed China’s ‘new security concept.’ Yang also revived an old theme to warn against the actions of states (read the United States and Japan) that sought to ‘reinforce bilateral military alliances’ and seek ‘absolute military superiority’ (Sutter and Huang 2007c).
Greater Mekong Subregion. The Mekong River passes through six countries: China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. All riparian countries view the Mekong as a major resource for food, transport and energy to be utilized for national economic development. China’s rise and rapid economic growth is widely viewed as both an opportunity and a challenge for downstream states, all of whom are members of ASEAN. ASEAN and China have committed themselves to creating a free trade area. It would seem to be in the national interests of all six countries to minimize conflict over the Mekong’s shared resources by cooperating in water management and engaging in joint development. Cooperation over the Mekong should contribute to development, economic integration and regional security.
There are two major multilateral institutions that are concerned with the development of the Mekong River and its surrounding area. The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) was created in October 1992 on the initiative of the Asian Development Bank, while the Mekong River Commission (MRC) was formed in 1995. [28] China is not a member of either the GMS or MRC. The lack of official participation by the central Chinese government severely hampers the effectiveness of both these institutions. China claims sovereignty over the Upper Mekong (Lancang Jiang) and views the construction of a cascade of dams its own internal affair despite the potentially devastating impact downstream.
The GMS includes Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and the Chinese province of Yunnan and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The GMS work programme has passed through four phases: confidence-building (1992-94), identification of priority sectors (1994-96), project development (1996-2000) and project implementation (2000-present).
GMS decision-making was initially based on an annual ministerial-level meeting until 2002 when it was superseded by regular summit meetings. China hosted the 2nd GMS Summit in Kunming, Yunnan in July 2005. Premier Wen Jiabao in his keynote address to the summit reaffirmed China’s financial commitment to GMS programmes and tabled a seven-point plan to step up economic cooperation and infrastructure development (Montaperto 2005c). Wen also announced that preferential tariffs would be granted to goods from Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar.
It is significant to note that cooperation under GMS auspices is not undertaken on the basis of a formal treaty or other legally-binding obligation. Rather, GMS cooperation has become imbued with the norms of ‘the ASEAN Way’, that is, decision-making is informal and voluntary. Individual GMS members are permitted to undertake cooperative programmes without first obtaining the consent of all parties.
The GMS may be viewed as the sum of its mini-lateral cooperative programs. Agreed programmes are implemented by subregional coordinating committees, working groups and fora in nine sectoral areas: transportation infrastructure, telecommunications, energy development, environmental management, human resources development, trade facilitation, investment, tourism and agriculture.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to consider all forms of cooperation under the umbrella of the GMS. The GMS takes in a much wider geographical area than the Mekong River basin and thus provides a unique framework for cooperation between Vietnam and China to develop their respective border regions. Since the early 1990s, both China and Vietnam have included the development of border regions in their national development plans.
Cross-border cooperation involves the interplay of national and local authorities and has led to burgeoning trade as well as substantial development of energy, communications and transport infrastructure. Since 2004, for example, China has emerged as Vietnam’s largest trading partner with trade weighted heavily in China’s favour. Vietnam is Guangxi province’s most important trading partner. Vietnam buys electricity from Yunnan province’s power grid. The border crossing at Lao Cai-Hekou has developed into a substantial market, and land locked Kunming has access to the sea via a rail line that passes through Lao Cai to the port of Hai Phong. As noted above, in October 2004 Premier Wen Jiabao described the infrastructure linking China and Vietnam as ‘two corridors, one circle’.
In November 2004, China announced that it would increase funding to upgrade the rail line between Kunming and Hanoi. A year later, a new highway connecting Nanning and National Route 1 in Vietnam was opened. In 2007, China and Vietnam agreed to construct an economic cooperation zone astride the border at Pingxiang city, Guangxi and Lang Son province in Vietnam (Sutter and Huang 2007b). In March 2008, Vietnam and China signed a MOU to include the Nanning-Hanoi corridor and the Youyiguan-Huu Nghi Border Crossing Point under the umbrella of the GMS Cross-Border Transport Agreement. In May 2008, Vietnam hosted the first conference of the Joint Working Committee including officials from Cao Bang, Lang Son and Quang Ninh provinces and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Two months later, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung approved the construction of a six-lane expressway from Hanoi to Lang Son to connect with Guangxi. The net result of cross-border cooperation has been to facilitate the movement of Chinese goods beyond Vietnam to Southeast Asia.
Part 3. Issues in Sino-Vietnamese Cooperation
In October 2007, Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, speaking to the 17th party congress, introduced the concept of ‘harmonious world’ to replace ‘China’s peaceful rise’ and ‘China’s peaceful development’ as the major foreign policy theme of his tenure (for background see Zhang 2007). There were three major implications for Southeast Asia (Sutter and Huang 2007d). First, China sought to bolster its influence in the region by forging strategic partnerships with Southeast Asian states through economic integration and cooperation in non-traditional issues. Second, China sought to develop its southern region (Yunnan and Guangxi) by promoting the development of the Greater Mekong Subregion and pan-Beibu (Tonkin) Gulf. Third, China continued to support ASEAN and other regional organisations as long as they were beneficial to itself. [29]
Greater Mekong Subregion. Multilateral cooperation to develop the Mekong River Basin and the Greater Mekong Subregion is hostage to China’s absence from these two bodies, the participation of Yunnan province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the GMS notwithstanding. China commands the dominant position because it is the upstream state and by virtue of its economic power and growing military might. China has made it repeatedly clear that it rejects the principles of water management adopted by the MRC. The construction of a cascade of dams on the Upper Mekong (Langcang Jiang) reportedly is already impacting negatively on downstream states. If China continues with its plans to construct further dams, this will have potentially wide ranging impacts on water flow and the ecosystem including Vietnam’s rice basket, the Mekong Delta.
The MRC and GMS, although they share similar goals and objectives, pursue them by different means and structures. A recent study by Mark Buntaine (2007) concluded that China has deliberately fostered the development of overlapping non-hierarchical institutions in order to separate economic development from environmental issues. Buntaine terms this process ‘issue fragmentation’, that is, ‘China has used its position as a regional leader to focus policy coordination in institutions favourable to its interests, while fragmenting overlapping institutions through selective participation’ (2007). In other words, despite the growing economic interdependence of states comprising the Greater Mekong Subregion, Chinese actions have retarded the development of cooperative governance structures. Vietnam is thus unable to raise its concerns about seasonal waters flows into the Mekong Delta in either the MRC (of which China is not a member) or the GMS (because the focus is on cross-border trade and infrastructure development).
Gulf of Tonkin. In contrast to the Greater Mekong Subregion, Vietnam and China have been able to cooperate successfully in the Gulf of Tonkin. The foundation for Sino-Vietnamese cooperation rests on the 2000 agreement that delineated the maritime boundary by setting out precise map coordinates along a modified line of equidistance (Amer 2004: 332). [30] The agreement came into force in June 2004 with the signing of the supplementary protocol on the joint fishing area. In October 2004, Premier Wen Jiabao came to Hanoi to firm up fishing cooperation as well as to speed up the process of demarcation of the land border .
In January 2005, a reported shooting incident in the Tonkin Gulf that led to death of eight Vietnamese fishermen, highlighted the need to manage the common fishing zone (Thao and Amer 2007: 313). Despite this incident, in November 2005, the Vietnam Petroleum Corporation (PetroVietnam) and the China National Offshore Oil Corporation reached agreement to conduct joint exploration for oil and gas in the Gulf of Tonkin. On January 2007, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung approved this agreement. As noted above, Vietnam and China conducted their first joint naval patrols in April 2006. Four additional patrols have been carried out since then: December 2006, July 2007, October 2007, and May 2008.
Secretary General Nong Duc Manh visited Beijing in late May-early June 2008 at the invitation of Hun Jintao, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (Sutter and Huang 2008b). Their joint statement declared, ‘the two sides will continue to implement the [Gulf of Tonkin] Demarcation Agreement and the Agreement on Fishery Cooperation in the [Gulf of Tonkin] and carry out joint inspection in the fishing zone, joint survey of fishery resources, and joint naval patrols. The two sides will accelerate the implementation of the Framework Agreement on Oil and Natural Gas Cooperation in Agreed Zones in the [Gulf of Tonkin]…’ [31]
Also, China and Vietnam have entered into discussions to delineate waters beyond the mouth of the Gulf of Tonkin. The fourth meeting on this issue was held in Beijing in January 2008.
South China Sea. The dispute between Vietnam and China over waters and features in the South China Sea has proved intractable. Despite progress over issues relating to the Gulf of Tonkin, overlapping claims to the South China Sea remain a constant irritant. In October 2004, after Premier Wen Jiabao’s successful visit to Hanoi, China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs voiced ‘serious concern’ about Vietnam’s release of bids to explore for oil and gas in waters over its continental shelf (Montaperto 2004b). China claimed that Vietnamese actions went against earlier commitments. Vietnam nonetheless proceeded with the bidding process.
Minor incidents continued to crop up. In March 2005, China claimed that its fishermen in the South China Sea had been attacked by Vietnamese ‘sea robbers’ (Montaperto 2005a). China called on Vietnam to join with it to suppress maritime crimes. Two months later a Vietnamese cargo ship sank off the coast of Shanghai fueling speculation that it had been fired upon by Chinese naval forces which conducted naval maneuvers at that time. On May 12th, the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement declaring that China was not responsible for the ship’s loss (Montaperto 2005b).
Expert-level talks on maritime issues (South China Sea), which were inaugurated in November 1995, are still ongoing. Both sides have yet to agree on an agenda. Vietnam insists that both the Paracel and Spratly archipelagoes be included in the discussions. China insists that the Paracels be excluded and that the discussions focus on the Spratlys including disputed waters and continental shelf.
In April 2006, the 10th National VCP Congress adopted a resolution decreeing that Vietnam’s maritime areas should be developed with a focus on sectors that have comparative advantages ‘in order to develop a strong maritime economy, maintain national defence and security in a spirit of international cooperation’. This matter was considered by the fourth plenum of VCP the Central Committee that met in January 2007. Reports submitted to this meeting noted that there was no coherent plan to integrate the economic development of coastal areas with the exploitation of marine resources in Vietnam’s territorial waters. Economists estimated that by 2020, the marine economy could contribute up to 55 percent of GDP and between 55-60 percent of exports if it were developed in a comprehensive manner.
The fourth plenum directed that a national Maritime Strategy Towards the Year 2020 be drawn up to integrate economic development with environmental protection and national defence and security. The Vietnam People’s Army was tasked with ‘defending territorial waters and safeguarding national sovereignty.’ The maritime strategy was completed by the end of the year but has not yet been released publicly.
Vietnam’s adoption of a new maritime strategy coincided with increased Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea. China claims the waters and features that Vietnam seeks to develop. China has reportedly applied pressure on foreign firms that were likely to be involved in developing Vietnam’s maritime sector, warning them that their commercial operations in China might suffer if they became involved in developing areas claimed by China. In July 2008, for example, an ExxonMobile executive revealed that his company had come under Chinese pressure to scrap a preliminary exploration agreement with PetroVietnam. [32]
In March 2007, it was announced that British Petroleum (BP) and its partners had submitted plans to the Vietnamese Ministry of Industry to invest US $2 billion in a major expansion in gas and power over the next decade. These plans included installing at least two natural gas pipelines connecting off shore deposits in two new gas fields, Moc Tinh and Hai Thach, in the Nam Con Son basin in the South China Sea. BP’s plans also included the construction of a power plant in Nhon Trach in Dong Nai province. [33] BP currently maintains the only operational pipeline which connects the Lan Tay-Lan Do gas field in the Nam Con Son basin to the Phu My power complex in Ba Ria-Vung Tau. The new fields to be connected to the proposed pipeline are adjacent to the fields from which BP presently operates.
The question of BP’s future operations quickly became a contentious issue in Sino-Vietnamese relations. On April 10tth, Qin Gang, a spokesperson for the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was directly asked by a reporter from the state-run media about BP’s proposed pipeline and Vietnam’s plan to hold voting for the National Assembly on its possessions in the South China Sea. Qin replied, ‘China has indisputable sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and their adjacent waters and neighbouring marine areas… Vietnam’s new actions, which infringe on China’s sovereignty, sovereign rights and administrative rights on the Nansha Islands, go against the important consensus reached by leaders of the two countries on the maritime issue and are not beneficial to stability of the South China Sea area.’ [34] Qin noted that any one-sided action taken by any country in the South China Sea is ‘illegal and invalid’ constituting an encroachment upon Chinese territorial sovereignty. [35] Qin was also quoted as stating: ‘It is not beneficial to stability in the South China Sea area. The Chinese side is paying close attention and we have already made serious representations to the Vietnamese side.’ [36]
By way of response, on April 11th, Le Dzung, a spokesperson for Vietnam’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stated that Vietnam has sufficient historical evidence and legal basis to confirm its sovereignty over the Hoang Sa (Paracel) and Truong Sa (Spratly) Islands. Dzung said Vietnam’s operations conducted on its islands and territorial waters, including plot divisions, exploration and exploitation of oil and gas were ‘completely normal’. They were, he said, ‘in line with Vietnamese law as well as international laws and practices, particularly the 1982 United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea and the 2002 Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the East Sea.’ [37] Dzung also noted that Vietnam’s partnership with BP dated to 2000 and ‘is within Vietnam’s exclusive economic area and continental shelf, and is within Vietnam’s sovereignty.’ [38] The Lan Tay-Lan Do field has been producing natural gas for power generation since 2002. [39]
In April 2007, during the exchange of claims and counter-claims, Chinese naval vessels detained four Vietnamese fishing boats near Spratly islands and fined their crews (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11). And in June, as a result of Chinese pressure, BP announced it was halting seismic work off southern Vietnam until Sino-Vietnamese tensions subsided. Events took a turn for the worse on July 9, 2007 when an incident reportedly occurred between a People’s Liberation Army Navy vessel and Vietnamese fishing boats near the Paracels resulting in the sinking of one Vietnamese boat and the death of one Vietnamese fisherman (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11). [40]
At the end of the year, PLAN exercises in the Paracel Islands from November 16-23, 2007 provoked Vietnamese protests (Sutter and Huang 2007d). A Foreign Ministry spokesperson declared that the Chinese naval exercises violated Vietnamese sovereignty and ‘was not in line with the common perception’ and spirit reached by leaders at recent high-level discussions in Singapore. Vietnam reiterated its sovereignty over the Paracel and Spratly islands but also called for a peaceful resolution of differences. China’s Foreign Ministry responded by dismissing Vietnam’s statement as unreasonable and as usual claimed ‘irrefutable sovereignty’ over both archipelagoes.
No action was more inflammatory than the reported decision of the National People’s Congress to create Sansha city in Hainan province with administrative responsibility over three archipelagoes in the South China Sea, the Paracels, Spratlys and Zhongsa (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11 and Sutter and Huang 2007d). [41] Vietnam’s Foreign Ministry responded on December 4, 2007 by declaring the NPC’s actions an ‘encroachment’ on Vietnamese sovereignty. The NPC’s actions also provoked anti-China student demonstrations in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City on 9th and 16th December 2007. [42] China immediately protested. Vietnam’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs told China that the protests were spontaneous and not approved. ASEAN ambassadors were also called in and given the same message.
Early in the new year matters heated up when China accused twelve Vietnamese fishing boats of firing on ten Chinese trawlers in the Gulf of Tonkin on 7th January. Although there were no fatalities, several Chinese boats were hit by bullets. Vietnam dismissed Chinese allegations and replied that the incident was caused when fishing nets and tackles had become entangled. [43]
In order to diffuse growing tensions, Vietnam and China convened the second meeting of the China-Vietnam Steering Committee on Cooperation in Beijing from January 23-25, 2008 (Sutter and Huang 2008a). [44] Vietnam was represented by Pham Gia Khiem, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and China was represented by Tang Jiaxuan, State Councillor. Khiem also conferred with his counterpart Yang Jiechi. The Steering Committee discussed trade issues as well as ‘sensitive and important matters related to [the] bilateral relationship in a frank manner, including border and territorial issues’. [45] Both sides agreed to sign a treaty on land border management regulations in future and to carry out a number of projects in less sensitive areas such as oceanic research, crime prevention and control, environmental protections and a joint survey of the water area off the Gulf of Tonkin. [46] Finally, both sides agreed ‘not to further complicate the situation’ and to ‘properly handle problems in bilateral relations’ through ‘dialogue and consultations.’
The growing friction between China and Vietnam was addressed by a ‘summit meeting’ of communist party leaders who met in Beijing from May 30-June 2, 2008. A wide range of issues were discussed including trade and investment ties, science and technology cooperation and educational exchanges. The territorial dispute in the South China Sea was referred to obliquely in the official media as a problem ‘left over from history’. A commentary in Nhan Dan on 30th May, for example, mentioned in passing the ‘maintenance of stability in the East Sea’.
According to media accounts, at the summit, when Hu Jintao ‘suggested a proper solution to existing issues between the countries on the basis of friendly consultations and mutual benefit’, Nong Duc Manh replied that he shared Hu’s views and that ‘the two countries should communicate promptly about their concerns.’ The two leaders agreed ‘to build an exchange and co-operation mechanism between concerned agencies of the two Parties… and foster an effective co-operation mechanism between foreign ministries and agencies, national defence, public security and security forces’. The two party leaders also agreed that the most appropriate coordinating mechanism to handle their relations was the bilateral Steering Committee. [47]
A joint statement issued after official talks between the two party leaders declared that China and Vietnam would base future cooperation in the Gulf of Tonkin on agreements reached in 2004 demarcating claims and fishing rights. The two leaders pledged to continue joint naval patrols and to conduct a joint survey of waters outside the mouth of the Tonkin Gulf. Hu and Manh also agreed to complete the laying of land border markers by the end of the year. However the most significant development in the joint statement was the decision by China and Vietnam to raise bilateral relations to the level of a strategic partnership and to establish a hotline between party leaders. [48]
Immediately prior to Manh’s visit to Beijing commercial satellite imagery was released to the public confirming that China was building a major naval base on Hainan Island, The high-resolution satellite photographs showed major surface combatants as well as a single nuclear submarine were stationed there. Other satellite imagery of piers and docks indicated that the Sanya Naval Base had the potential to accommodate large surface combatants including assault ships.
The development of Sanya Naval Base was paralleled by China’s construction of an airfield at Woody Island in the Paracel islands, and consolidation of facilities at Fiery Cross Reef and the maintenance of a continuing naval presence at Mischief Reef both in the Spratly archipelago. In sum, China is rapidly acquiring an enhanced capability to exercise its sovereignty claims over the South China Sea and protect its vital Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC) through the Malacca and Singapore Straits through which much of its energy resources flow.
Other construction indicates that the Sanya Naval Base will have strategic implications for the balance of power in the region. Portions of the base are being built underground to provide facilities that cannot be easily monitored. Satellite imagery has confirmed the presence of a Chinese Type 094 Jin-class submarine since late 2007. [49] The Type-094 submarine is a second-generation nuclear vessel and represents China’s most lethal naval strike weapon. According to the U.S. Defense Department five more SSBNs could become operational by 2010. When the submarine facilities are completed they will provide China with the capability to station a substantial proportion of its submarine-based nuclear deterrence capabilities on Hainan. If China can develop the necessary operational skills its nuclear subs will be able to patrol and fire from concealed positions in deep waters off Hainan.
In August 2008, four Chinese-language websites carried an alleged Chinese plan to invade Vietnam. According to this document, ‘Vietnam… is a major threat to the safety of Chinese territories, and the biggest obstacle to the peaceful emergence of China’ and ‘Vietnam has to be conquered first’ if China wanted to exercise its traditional influence in the region. [50] In response, Vietnam twice summoned senior Chinese diplomats to its Foreign Ministry to voice concerns about the possible negative impact on bilateral relations and to request the removal of the offending document from Chinese web sites. [51]
Conclusion
For several years scholars have been engaged in an on-going debate about how states in the Asia-Pacific Region are responding to China’s rise. Generally, five major strategies have been identified: balancing, hedging, bandwagoning, engagement and omni-enmeshment (Kang 2003 and 2003/04, Acharya 2003/04, Roy 2005, Vuving 2005, Womack 2006 and Goh 2007/08).
There are two forms of balancing (Roy 2005). The first is external and involves collaboration by two or more states against a potential adversary. The second form is internal and involves developing defence self-reliance and national cohesion. Hedging is a general strategy and refers to keeping more than one option open. For example, a state may pursue a strategy of engagement while hedging at the same time. There are two forms of bandwagoning. The first involves alignment with potential adversary in order to ward off possible coercive measures. The second form of bandwagoning involves seeking economic gain by being on the ‘winning side’.
The strategy of engagement refers to opening up multifaceted relations with another state in the expectation that the rewards of such a relationship will result in reciprocity and maintenance of the status quo. According to Roy engagement is a strategy whereby a state uses inclusion and rewards to attempt to socialize a dissatisfied power into accepting the rules and institutions of the pre-existing international order’ (2005: 306) Finally, the strategy of omni-enmeshment refers ‘to the process of engaging with a state so as to draw it into deep involvement in international or regional society, enveloping it in a web of sustained exchanges and relationships, with the long-term aim of integration’ (Goh 2007/08” 120-121).
Vietnam has been put between a rock and a hard place over Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea in 2007-08. In terms of public diplomacy, China has repeatedly offered to observe the DOC and to settle outstanding matters peacefully. Yet in private China continues to exert diplomatic and military pressure on Vietnam to acquiesce to Chinese sovereignty claims in the South China Sea. Chinese pressures on international companies to cease assisting Vietnam in the development of off-shore oil and gas resources threatens to scuttle Vietnamese plans to develop its maritime area. In the face of these challenges what strategy is Vietnam pursuing ?
The data in this paper clearly demonstrates that Vietnam is not pursuing a balance of power strategy in relation to China’s rise. Neither is Vietnam bandwagoning with China in an effort to ward of possible coercion or to gain economic advantage. According to the then deputy head of the National Assembly’s External Relations Committee, Ton Nu Thi Ninh, ‘everyone knows that we have to keep a fine balance‘ neither ‘leaning over’ toward the United States or ‘bow[ing]’ to China. [52] There is evidence, not discussed in this paper, that Vietnam is pursuing a strategy of internal balancing by a modest effort to modernize its military forces and by maintaining national unity (Thayer 2008b and 2008c).
Vietnam appears to be pursuing a mix of engagement, omni-enmeshment and hedging strategies towards China. Vietnam pursues engagement primarily in its bilateral relations with China under the terms of the long-term cooperative framework agreement of 2000. Vietnam has attempted to manage and codify its relations with China through understandings reached at regular high-level meetings between party secretary generals and state presidents. Bilateral relations are broken down into issue areas and dealt with through joint working groups at expert, government and ministerial levels. These structures have resulted in a land border treaty, a treaty delimiting the Gulf of Tonkin and an agreement on fisheries cooperation. When the laying of the land border markers is completed this will represent a major confidence-building measure.
Vietnam also pursues a strategy of omni-enmeshment through membership in ASEAN and the Greater Mekong Subregion. China is one of ASEAN’s dialogue partners. ASEAN and China have institutionalized their relations through a strategic partnership involving annual summit meetings of heads of state/government, the ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee, ASEAN-China Senior Officials Meeting process, ASEAN-China political-security consultations, ASEAN-China Joint Working Group on the South China Sea and other mechanisms. ASEAN and China are presently pursuing a Free Trade Area.
ASEAN is also the core of other regional multilateral organizations such as the ARF that serve to manage relations with China. The Greater Mekong Subregion and the Mekong River Commission are weak institutional reeds in comparison to ASEAN or the ARF. China is not represented at the central government level but by Yunnan province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Nevertheless, the GMS structure has provided a very important framework that facilitates extensive cross-border economic relations and infrastructural development. ASEAN and China have agreed to undertake joint action to develop the GMS. China is not a formal member of the MRC but has become a dialogue partner thus opening up another area for Vietnam to pursue relations with China through multilateral structures.
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_____, 2001b. ‘Scramble for Cam Ranh Bay as Russia prepares to withdraw’, Jane’s Intelligence Review, 34-37.
Sutter, Robert 2005. ‘Emphasizing the Positive; Continued Wariness’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 7(4), 4th Quarter.
_____, 2006. ‘Progress with Limitations’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 8(1), 1st Quarter.
Sutter, Robert and Chin-Hao Huang, 2006a. ‘Military Diplomacy and China’s Soft Power’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 8(2), 2nd Quarter.
_____, 2006b, ‘Chinese Diplomacy and Optimism about ASEAN’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 8(3), 3rd Quarter.
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_____, 2007a. ‘Cebu Meetings, UN Veto on Myanmar’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 9(1), 1st Quarter.
_____, 2007b. ‘China’s Activism Faces Persistent Challenges’, Comparative Connections: An E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 9(2), 2nd Quarter.
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_____, 2008c ‘Vietnam People’s Army: Development and Modernization’, Presentation to Sultan Haji Bolkiah Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, Ministry of Defence, Bolkiah Garrison, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam, July 24.
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Zhang, Jian 2007. ‘Building ‘a harmonious world’? Chinese perceptions of regional order and implications for Australia’, Strategic Insights 35. Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute.
Zou Keyuan, 1999. ‘Maritime Boundary Delimitation in the Gulf of Tonkin’, Ocean Development & International Law, 30, 235-254.
_____, 2001. ‘Historic Rights in International Law and China’s Practice’, Ocean Development & International Law, 32, 149-168.
______, 2005. ‘The Sino-Vietnamese Agreement on Maritime Boundary Delimitation in the Gulf of Tonkin’, Ocean Development & International Law, 36, 13-24.
——————————————————————-
* Professor of Politics, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University College, The University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra. Professor Thayer is currently on leave as Visiting Fellow at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, The Australian National University. He may be contacted at: c.thayer@adfa.edu.au. Completed September 29, 2008.
[1] Xinhua Domestic Service, February 27, 1999.
[2] Vietnam News Agency, December 25, 2000.
[3] These arrangements were variously titled: framework agreement, framework document, joint statement and joint declaration. For a detailed analysis consult: Thayer 2003a. For recent overviews of China’s bilateral relations with Southeast Asia consult: Haacke 2005 and Percival 2007.
[4] China already conducts defence security consultations with Thailand and the Philippines.
[5] ‘China, Vietnam issue joint communiqué,’ People’s Daily Online, July 21, 2005..
[6] Jane’s Defense Weekly, January 4, 2006, on line edition. China’s state-owned armed supplier, NORINCO, was reported to have sold small arms ammunition artillery shells, and military vehicles to Vietnam. NORINCO was also reported to be assisting Vietnam in the co-production of ammunition and heavy machine guns.
[7] Nhan Dan, April 8, 2006.
[8] Xinhua August 9, 2006.
[9] Xinhua, August24, 2006. China had earlier provided funds for the construction of the 300 MW Cam Pha thermal Power Plant.
[10] ‘China-Vietnam Joint Communiqué’, Beijing, August 24, 2006.
[11] Vietnam News Service, October 25, 2006.
[12] VNA, October 31, 2006.
[13] Xinhua, November 1, 2006 and VNA, November 1, 2006.
[14] The two corridors consist of transport routes from Nanning to Lang Son-Hanoi-Hai Phong and Kunming-Lao Cai-Hanoi-Hai Phong. The circle (or belt) refers to the joint development of the Gulf of Tonkin. IN September 2008, the Asian Development Bank agreed to provide US $1.1 billion to build a 244 kilometre highway linking Hanoi with Kunming. This is the most expensive project to be funded by the ADB.
[15] The two ministers also agreed to continue to address differences over the South China Sea.
[16] ‘Vietnam, China enhance border defence cooperation,’Vietnam.net, November 9, 2007.
[17] Joint Press Release, ‘The First ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee Meeting’, Beijing, February 26-28, 1997.
[18] Joint Statement of the Meeting of Heads of State/Government of the Member States of ASEAN and the President of the People’s Republic of China, December 16, 1997.
[19] The MOU followed a special meeting held in Bangkok in April 2003 to discuss joint action to deal with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic. In September 2004, China hosted the ARF Workshop on Drug-Substitute Alternative Development and in March 2005, China hosted an ARF seminar on enhancing cooperation in the field of non-traditional security issues.
[20] Joint Declaration of the Heads of State/Government of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the People’s Republic of China on Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity, October 8, 2003. For an analysis consult: Breckon 2003a.
[21] Plan of Action to Implement the Joint Declaration of ASEAN-China Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity.
[22] In 2007, however, Indonesia proposed seeking technical assistance from both China and Japan on an ASEAN-wide and bilateral basis to build up the capacity of the littoral states; see Shefall Rekhi, ‘Indonesia seeks wider China and Japan role’, The Straits Times, June 4, 2007.
[23] “Tripartite agreement on joint survey of seismic activity in East Sea signed’, Vietnam News Agency, March 14, 2005 and Ma. Theresa Torres and Niel Villegas Mugas, ‘RP, China, Vietnam to explore Spratlys’, The Manila Times, March 16, 2005. Premier Weh Jiabao and Prime Minister Phan Van Khai held sidelilne discussions at the 2nd GMS Summit in July 2005 and agreed to work more closely with the Philippies to implement the joint agreement; ‘China, Vietnam agree to joint exploration of disputed areas’, Xinhua, Beijing, July 4, 2005; and ‘China, Philippines, Vietnam work on disputed South China Sea area’, Xinhua, August 27, 2005. This agreement lapsed in 2008.
[24] Xinhuanet, Beijing, July 19, 2005 in People’s Liberation Army Daily, July 20, 2005.
[25] Agence France-Presse, ‘Philippines, China, Vietnam to cooperate in Spratlys security’, Channelnewsasia.com, May 19, 2006.
[26] The third annual Pan-Beibu Gulf economic cooperation forum was held in Beihai, Guangxi in July 2008. It was attended by delegates from Brunei, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. The first two forums were held in Nanning, Guangxi in 2006 and 2007.
[27] Xinhua News Agency, September 6, 2000.
[28] The current MRC had its origins in the Mekong Committee formed in 1957. In 1975 Cambodia (Khmer Rouge regime) withdrew and an Interim Mekong Committee (IMC) was created in 1978. After the settlement of the Cambodian conflict in 1991, Cambodia rejoined and the IMC became the Mekong River Commission. Current membership includes Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam but not China and Myanmar. In 1995 a dialogue mechanism was created for MRC discussions with China and Myanmar.
[29] Zhai Kun, ‘Harmony through East Asia Friendship,’ China Daily, November 19, 2007.
[30] The line of equidistance had to be modified in order to take into account the effect of islands, such as Vietnam’s Bach Long Vi.
[31] ‘Joint Statement Between China and Vietnam,’ People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 1, 2008.
[32] Greg Torode, ‘Tussle for oil in the South China Sea’, South China Morning Post, July 20, 2008.
[33] Dong Ha, ‘BP, PetroVietnam rearrange gas pipeline overhauls plan’, Thanh Nien, March 14, 2007
[34] Xinhua, People’s Daily Online, April 10, 2007; for a slightly different rendition consult Reuters, ‘Vietnam stirring trouble with gas pipe plan – China’, April 10, 2007.
[35] Xinhua, People’s Daily Online, April 10, 2007.
[36] Quoted by Reuters, April 10, 2007. Qin Gang’s remarks were carried by the Shanghai Daily and The China Daily on April 11, 2007.
[37] Thong Tan Xa Viet Nam, Thanh Nien, April 12, 2007.
[38] Thanh Nien, April 12, 2007.
[39] This area is separate from the area where the national oil companies China, the Philippines and Vietnam conducted joint seismic exploration; Voice of Vietnam, April 12, 2007.
[40] Neither China nor Vietnam has provided a public account of this incident. It is unlikely that Vietnam People’s Army naval vessels were involved in this incident. But it is highly possible that fishing vessels that form part of local security forces could have been involved. There is a real grey area concerning local self-defence forces and militia. It is even more likely that armed Vietnamese fishermen were involved. China typically embellishes incidents to suits its purposes and its use of the expression ‘armed vessels’ is an example of such calculated ambiguity.
[41] Mingpao [Hong Kong], November 19, 2007 quoting an official of the Wenchang Propaganda Department, Hainan. Later another official on Hainan denied that this issue was on the NPC’s agenda, ‘Plan to designate islands a city denied,’ South China Morning Post, December 19 2007.
[42] Agence France-Presse, Hanoi, December 15, 2007.
[43] Roger Mitton, ‘Viet Minister Off to Beijing to Mend Fences,’ The Straits Times, January 23, 2008.
[44] The Vietnamese delegation included Deputy Minister of Defence Nguyen Huy Hieu who met separately with members of the Committee of Science, Technology and Industry, Ministry of Defence Hieu expressed an interest in deepening cooperation in personnel training, frontier and coastal defence and ‘other fields’.
[45] Deputy Foreign Minister Vu Dung, ‘Boosting Vietnam-China ties for mutual benefits’, VietNamNet Bridge, January 30, 2008. Dung is the general secretary for Vietnam on the Steering Committee.
[46] Vietnam News Agency, January 23, 2008.
[47] Hu also pressed his Vietnamese counterpart to agree on a five-year blueprint on trade cooperation. Both leaders witnessed the signing of agreements on veterinary and animal quarantine and plant protection and plant quarantine, and a credit contract for a nitrogenous fertilizer plant in Ninh Binh province.
[48] ‘Full text of China-Vietnam Joint Statement, Xinhua, June 1, 2008. Vietnam has strategic partnerships with Russia, India and Japan and ‘strategic relations’ with France. Vietnam and the United States have both mentioned raising their bilateral relations to the strategic level.
[49] The presence of a nuclear submarine, and potential future deployments, calls into question China’s ability to sign the Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear-Weapon Free Zone in good faith.
[50] ‘Invade Vietnam: Plan A’, English-language translation of the ‘thirty-one day invasion plan’ posted on Chinese websites. I am grateful to Greg Torode for providing a copy of this document.
[51] Greg Torode, ‘Vietnam Protests Over Chinese ”Invasion Plans”’, South China Morning Post, September 5, 2008, Jonathan Adams, ‘Vietnam protests hawkish Chinese Web postings’, The Christian Science Monitor, September 10, 2008 and Rowan Callick, ‘China’s netizens menace Vietnam’, The Australian, September 11, 2008.
[52] Quoted by Jane Perlez, ‘U.S. competes with China for Vietnam’s allegiance”, International Herald Tribune, 19 June 2006.
Paper for the 3rd International Conference on Vietnamese Studies, Hanoi, Vietnam December 4-7, 2008
Carlyle A. Thayer
The Structure of Vietnam-China Relations, 1991-2008
Carlyle A. Thayer *
Introduction
Much of the scholarly work that focuses on relations between Vietnam and China stresses the importance of bilateral relations (Amer 2004a and 2008, Vuving 2005 and 2006a and Womack 2006). This paper extends the framework of analysis to include the key multilateral and bilateral structures that influence this relationship. The paper is divided into three parts. The first deals with bilateral structures, the second considers multilateral structures and the third focuses on the interplay of multilateral and bilateral structures in fostering economic cooperation and managing territorial disputes.
Part one discusses the structure of bilateral relations since 1999-2000 when long-term cooperative framework agreements were reached between party and state officials. These agreements led to the creation of expert- and government-level working groups to consider key issues in dispute such as the land border, Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea (Amer 2008: 12). The long-term cooperative framework also resulted in the exchange of delegations led by high-level party and state officials.
Part two stresses the importance of multilateral structures and multilateral agreements negotiated by the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) with China prior to and after Vietnam’s membership. Among the structures and agreements considered: ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee and the Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity and Plan of Action (2005-2010). Part two also considers the influence of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) on Vietnam-China relations.
Part three reviews a number of issues relating to Sino-Vietnamese cooperation in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), Gulf of Tonkin and South China Sea and evaluates the impact of multilateral and bilateral structures in dealing effectively with these issues. The paper concludes by noting the importance role of high-level leadership meetings, including the Joint Steering Committee on Cooperation, as key structures in the management of Vietnam-China relations.
Finally, the conclusion offers a net assessment of what the structure of Vietnam’s bilateral and multilateral relations with China reveals about Vietnam’s strategy for dealing with its northern neighbour. This section critically reviews five major strategies identified in the scholarly literature: balancing, hedging, bandwagoning, engagement and omni-enmeshment.
Part 1. Bilateral Relations
After more than a decade-long estrangement (1978-89), leaders from Hanoi and Beijing met in southern China in September 1990 and agreed to normalize bilateral relations. China and Vietnam resumed high-level political contact in November 1991, pointedly only after Vietnam had agreed to a comprehensive political settlement in Cambodia. In early 1999, bilateral political relations were codified at a meeting of party leaders held in Beijing. [1]
In the period between normalization of relations and the codification of political relations, Vietnam and China inaugurated discussions at the expert level to work out a settlement of their disputes regarding the land border and Gulf of Tonkin. The first expert-level discussions were held in October 1992. A year later, government-level talks led to agreement on the principles for the settlement of territorial disputes. The land border and Gulf of Tonkin disputes were separated and each assigned to a specialist joint working group. The joint working group on land issues first met in February 1994 and concluded in December 1999 after sixteen meetings when Vietnam and China signed a treaty on the land border. The joint working group on the Gulf of Tonkin first met in March 1994 and held seventeen meetings before reaching agreement. Expert-level discussions on maritime issues (eg. the South China Sea) commenced in November 1995.
In December 2000, Vietnam and China signed two important documents, the Agreement on the Demarcation of Waters, Exclusive Economic Zones and Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Tonkin and the Agreement on Fishing Cooperation in the Gulf of Tonkin. More importantly, Vietnam and China issued a Joint Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation in the New Century.’ [2] This document set out the structure of bilateral relations through a long-term framework for cooperation. Vietnam and China established a Joint Commission for Economic and Trade Cooperation to handle their economic relations. By January 2008, the Joint Commission had met six times.
It is notable that China also negotiated similar agreements with all the other regional states. Between February 1999 and December 2000, for example, China negotiated long-term cooperative framework arrangements with the other nine ASEAN members. [3] Generally these took the form of joint statements signed by foreign ministers or vice premiers.
Defence Cooperation. Six of China’s long-term cooperative framework agreements included a reference to security cooperation (Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, the Philippines, and Laos). Subsequently, several of these long-term framework agreements have been enhanced through additional joint declarations and/or memoranda of understanding. It is notable that no defence clause was included in the Sino-Vietnamese agreement, perhaps because of the contentious nature of unresolved territorial disputes in the South China Sea. According to the Vietnam-China joint statement, ‘[b]oth sides will refrain from taking any action that might complicate and escalate disputes, resorting to force or making threats with force’.
Table 1
Exchange Visits by Defence Ministers,
November 1991-September 2008
To China
To Vietnam
July 1991
Le Duc Anh
May 1993
Chi Haotian
December 1992
Doan Khue
February 2001
Chi Haotian
June 1998
Pham Van Tra
April 2006
Cao Gangchuan
July 2000
Pham Van Tra
October 2005
Pham Van Tra
August 2007
Phung Quang Thanh
Defence contacts between Vietnam and China were first opened with the exchange of delegations by the external relations departments of their respective defence ministries in February and May 1992, respectively. Data for the period since normalization in November 2001 to September 2008 reveals an imbalance in the exchange of delegations at the ministerial level. Vietnam’s defence minister visited China five times, while China’s defence minister has made only three visits to Hanoi (see Table 1). The exchanges at the level of vice minister, Chief of the General Staff, and General Political Department are more balanced. Contact at the level of service chiefs has been confined to one visit by the PLA Navy Air Force in 1997.
China and ASEAN members carried out seventy-one bilateral high-level defence visits in the period from 2002 to 2006. Sixteen were ministerial level visits. Reciprocal visits by defence ministers were conducted by China with five countries including Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Vietnam and China exchanged nine high-level delegations during this period. Between 2001 and 2006, China and Southeast Asia conducted eleven naval goodwill visits involving seven regional states. Chinese warships visited Vietnam, Singapore (twice), Thailand and Brunei. The Chinese visit to Vietnam took place in November 2001 when a People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Jiangwei-II guided missile frigate visited Ho Chi Minh City. The Vietnamese navy has yet to make a return visit.
Defence relations between China and Vietnam appear almost entirely focused on exchanges of views on ‘army-building’, regional security, ideological matters and border security issues. Since the normalization of relations both China and Vietnam have undertaken to de-mine and to dispose of unexploded ordnance in their frontier area. Since the signing of a treaty on their common border in 1999, both sides began to physically demarcate this area. In April 2005, China and Vietnam also commenced extremely low-key ‘consultations on defensive security’ in Beijing. [4]
In July 2005, President Tran Duc Luong made an official five-day state visit to China at the invitation of President Hu Jintao. The two leaders reaffirmed their commitment to step up joint development and negotiations for a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea (Montaperto 2005c). The joint statement significantly declared, ‘between now and the end of 2005, the two sides will conduct joint investigation on fishery resources in joint fishing areas, so as to strive for launching joint patrols in Beibu Bay (Gulf of Tonkin) by the two navies and start the negotiation of the demarcation of the sea areas beyond the mouth of Beibu Bay (Gulf of Tonkin) as early as possible.’ [5]
In October 2005, the Chinese and Vietnamese Defence Ministers, Cao Gangchuan and Pham Van Tra, respectively, reached agreement on the conduct of joint naval patrols in the Gulf of Tonkin. The purpose of the patrols was to strengthen cooperation between the two navies and maintain security of the fishing and oil exploration activities in this area. The defence ministers tentatively discussed cooperation between their national defense industries. [6]
During the first quarter of 2006, Hanoi received Jia Qinglin, a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, and Defence Minister, Cao Gangchuan (Sutter 2006). Cao came to complete arrangements for joint naval patrols and to promote China’s military technology and professional training. [7] Cao was also briefed on the tenth party congress. On 27th April, the Chinese and Vietnamese navies conducted their first joint patrol in the Gulf of Tonkin. This was a first for the PLAN. Vietnam’s new Defence Minister, Phung Quang Thanh, made a return visit to Beijing in August to discuss cooperation between national defence industries and reciprocal training of high-level military officers. [8]
Party Secretary General Nong Duc Manh made an official visit to Beijing from 22-26 August. 2006. The state media noted that this was his first overseas trip since his re-election as party leader. Manh and his counterpart, Hu Jintao, agreed to boost trade, speed up border demarcation by the end of 2008, and step up discussions on the South China Sea (Sutter and Huang 2006b). The two leaders also reached agreement on joint projects in energy development, particularly in the Gulf of Tonkin. [9] The joint communiqué noted that ‘both sides spoke positively of… the joint patrol conducted by the navies of the two countries in the Tonkin Gulf’. [10]
In October 2006, Vietnam’s Minister of Public Security visited Beijing to follow up on proposals for security cooperation. Later that month, Lt. General Le Van Dung, head of the Vietnam People’s Army General Political Department, journeyed to China to discuss professional military education and training exchanges. [11] General Dung’s visit to the National Defence University in Beijing suggested that Vietnam would send military officers there in the future.
In late October-early November, China commemorated the fifteenth anniversary of the establishment of dialogue relations with ASEAN by hosting a gala summit of heads of government in Nanning. [12] Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung attended and held a separate high-level meeting with Premier Wen Jiabao on 31st October. They agreed to complete negotiations on a framework treaty on economic and trade cooperation. [13] Further, they reached accord to complete the delineation of the land border by 2008 and to step up negotiations on demarcation of maritime waters outside the Tonkin Gulf. They also discussed major joint construction projects involving upgrading rail and road links. The first meeting of the Steering Committee on Vietnam-China Bilateral Relations was convened on 11th November in Hanoi at deputy prime ministerial level.
President Hu Jintao made a separate state visit to Vietnam (15-17 November) in conjunction with his attendance at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit. During his visit China and Vietnam signed a framework agreement on economic and trade cooperation and a memorandum of understanding on the ‘two corridors, one circle’ cooperation. [14] The two leaders also agreed to accelerate cooperation over a broad range of issues including joint exploration for oil and gas in the Gulf of Tonkin. Finally, both leaders discussed their territorial disputes in the South China Sea (Sutter and Huang 2006c).
President Nguyen Minh Triet made a return visit to Beijing in May 2007. Triet and Hu reviewed bilateral economic and political relations (Suter and Huang 2007b). They reached agreement on the value of continued high-level visits and the efficacy of the Joint Steering Committee on Cooperation. A joint statement issued after their discussions affirmed the leaders’ commitment to complete the demarcation of the land border by 2008 and to step up joint oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Tonkin. Both sides agreed to refrain from taking unilateral actions that would upset the status quo or exacerbate conflict in the South China Sea.
In August 2007, the Chinese and Vietnamese defence ministers, Cao Gangchuan and Phung Quang Thanh, signed an Agreement on Border Defence Cooperation between their respective ministries. [15] On 8th November, the border defence agreement came into force. It set out the ‘basic principles on the coordinating relationship, information regulations and the responsibility of the two countries’ border protection and management forces.’ [16]
Since normalization of relations in 1991, Vietnam and China have created a dense network of mechanisms to manage their bilateral relations. Based on the 1999 party-to-party agreement and the 2000 joint declaration on comprehensive cooperation in the new centuryg, Vietnam and China have signed fifty-four state-level agreements and fifty-nine bilateral cooperation documents. By 2008, Vietnam and China now exchange more than one hundred delegations at all levels annually including the regular exchange visits by party leaders, prime ministers/premiers and other key ministers (foreign affairs, defence, public security etc.).
In 1993 Vietnam and China reached agreement on the basic principles to manage their common border and maritime territory. This led to agreement on demarcating the land border in 1999 and the Gulf of Tonkin in 2000. By 2008 China and Vietnam put in place approximately eighty-five percent of the approved border markers. A border management treaty is currently under negotiation. The agreement on the Gulf of Tonkin was accompanied by an agreement on fishing cooperation. Subsequently, in 2004, both sides negotiated a protocol on a joint fishing area and agreed to joint naval patrols.
Part 1 has stressed the importance of this network of joint agreements in structuring the bilateral relationship. Key documents provide for the regular exchange of high-level visits by party and state leaders that have proven to be effective in addressing pressing issues. Part 2 will extend this analysis to a consideration of multilateral structures that influence the management of relations between Vietnam and China.
Part 2. Multilateral Structures
This section discusses the structure of Vietnam’s relations with China through Vietnam’s membership in three multilateral institutions: ASEAN, the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Greater Mekong Subregion.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Formal linkages between China and ASEAN date to 1991 when Foreign Minister Qian Qichen attended the 24th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Kuala Lumpur as a guest of the Malaysian government. Qian expressed China’s interest in developing cooperation in the field of science and technology. ASEAN responded positively and in September 1993 dispatched ASEAN Secretary General Dato Ajit Singh to Beijing to follow up on Qian’s proposal. Singh held discussions with Vice Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan. In July 1994, ASEAN and China reached formal agreement to establish two joint committees — one on science and technology cooperation and the other on economic and trade cooperation. ASEAN and China also agreed to open consultations on political and security issues at the senior official level. The first ASEAN-China Senior Officials Meeting was held in Hangzhou in April 1995. Vietnam joined ASEAN in July 1995 and assumed the obligation to honour all past ASEAN agreements with China.
In 1996, China was accorded official dialogue partner status by ASEAN. As an ASEAN dialogue partner, China commenced regular participation in the annual ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conference consultation process. This took the form of a meeting between ASEAN and its ten dialogue partners (ASEAN Ten Plus Ten), and a separate meeting between ASEAN members and each of its dialogue partners (ASEAN Ten Plus One). In February 1997, ASEAN and China formalized their cooperation by establishing the ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee (ACJCC). The ACJCC first met in Beijing where it was agreed that it would ‘act as the coordinator for all the ASEAN-China mechanisms at the working level’ [17]
In December 1997 at the 2nd Informal ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur, ASEAN initiated a new process with the heads of state/government from China, Japan and South Korea that has since become known as the ASEAN Plus Three process. ASEAN also met separately with each head of state/government. After the ASEAN-China meeting the leaders issued a joint statement that ‘reaffirmed their common interest in developing the Mekong Basin and pledged to strengthened their support for the riparian countries by promoting activities in the areas of trade, tourism and transport.’ [18]
Three years later at the 4th ASEAN Informal Summit held in Singapore in November 2000, China’s Premier Zhu Rongji announced a major commitment to the development of the Mekong. At the next ASEAN summit in Brunei in November 2001, ASEAN endorsed the creation of a free trade area with China. China, for its part, proposed five areas of cooperation including development of the Mekong River basin.
China-ASEAN relations progressed to a new stage in November 2002 with the signing of three major documents: Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Between ASEAN Nations and the People’s Republic of China, Joint Declaration between China and ASEAN on Cooperation in Non-Traditional Security Fields, and Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC).
The first agreement laid the foundations for the China-ASEAN Free Trade Area. The joint declaration on non-traditional security was formalized in a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in January 2004. [19] A major advance towards the free trade area was taken in January 2007 when China and ASEAN signed the Agreement on Trade in Services at their tenth summit in Cebu, the Philippines. Originally, ASEAN sought to negotiate a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea. China resisted ASEAN diplomatic pressure to agree to a formal legally-binding code. Nevertheless, China and ASEAN were able to develop unprecedented cooperation under the umbrella of the DOC (see below for further discussion).
Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity. In October 2003, China’s zone of interaction with ASEAN was substantially enhanced when China acceded to the ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (Thayer forthcoming). The two parties then issued a joint declaration establishing an ASEAN-China strategic partnership. The joint declaration was the first formal agreement of this type between China and a regional organization, as well as a first for ASEAN itself. The joint declaration was wide-ranging and included a provision for the initiation of a new security dialogue as well as general cooperation in political matters. [20]
In July the following year, State Councilor Tang Jiaxuan raised the prospect of developing ‘enhanced strategic relations’ with ASEAN in his discussions with Secretary General Ong Keng Yong in Beijing. As a result, in late 2004, China and ASEAN drafted a five-year Plan of Action (2005-2010). This plan included, inter alia, a joint commitment to increase regular high-level bilateral visits, cooperation in the field of non-traditional security, security dialogue and military exchanges and cooperation. [21] The Plan of Action set out the following objectives:
Promote mutual confidence and trust in defense and military fields with a view to maintaining peace and stability in the region;
Conduct dialogues, consultations and seminars on security and defense issues;
Strengthen cooperation on military personnel training;
Consider observing each other’s military exercises and explore the possibility of conducting bilateral or multilateral joint military exercises; and
Explore and enhance cooperation in the field of peacekeeping.
ASEAN has been reluctant to advance military cooperation with China too quickly. In May 2004, during the course of a visit to Beijing by Malaysia’s new prime minister, Abdullah Badawi, his Chinese counterpart, Premier Wen Jiabao, suggested they consider a joint undertaking to maintain the security of sea lines of communication through the Malacca Strait. This proposal was pressed the following month by Senior Colonel Wang Zhongchun, deputy director of China’s National Defense University. In a paper presented to the China-ASEAN forum in Singapore, Wang proposed joint naval exercises and patrols and intelligence exchanges on terrorism. According to one analyst, Wang’s proposal was received coolly and with considerable skepticism by the audience (Montaperto 2004a). [22]
In September 2003, Wu Bangguo, chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, reiterated a proposal for joint oil exploration and development in areas of overlapping claims in the South China Sea. Early the following year, ASEAN and China agreed to set up a Joint Working Group to implement the DOC. In November 2004, at the 8th China-ASEAN Summit, Premier Wen Jiabao restated China’s long-standing proposal to shelve disputes in the South China Sea ‘while going for joint development.’ This led to a major break through on March 14, 2005 when the national oil companies of China, the Philippines and Vietnam signed an agreement to conduct joint seismic testing in the South China Sea. [23]
In April 2005, ASEAN and China held their eleventh Senior Officials Meeting. Vice Foreign Minister Wu Dawei stressed that the ASEAN-China strategic partnership was vital for regional security and that China supported ASEAN’s leading role in regional multilateral cooperation (Montaperto 2005b). More significantly, China agreed to participate on the Working Group on Implementing the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea.
In July 2005, President Hu Jintao reiterated China’s decade old call for joint development during the course of state visits to Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines. [24] At the same time, China and ASEAN officially set up the Joint Working Group on the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea and charged it with recommending measures to implement the agreement. The Working Group held its second meeting in Hainan in February 2006. In light of deadly pirate attacks on Chinese fishing vessels in May, China, the Philippines and Vietnam agreed to strengthen security cooperation in the South China Sea. [25]
The ASEAN-China strategic partnership was taken a step forward with the holding of the first workshop on regional security between defence officials in Beijing in July 2006. This workshop discussed maritime cooperation, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, counter terrorism and peacekeeping operations (Sutter and Huang 2006b).
In October 2006, ASEAN and China also held a heads of government Commemorative Summit in Nanning to mark the fifteenth anniversary of China’s status as a dialogue partner. Premier Wen Jiabao called for the expansion of military dialogue and exchanges and defence cooperation in such fields as maritime security, counter terrorism, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, transnational crime and the spread of infectious disease (Sutter and Huang 2006c).
In the joint statement all parties reaffirmed their commitment to the creation of an China-ASEAN Free Trade Area by 2010. Trade in goods was to be liberalized between China and the six oldest ASEAN members by that date, while the newest members (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam) were given until 2015. Ten priority areas were identified including the development of the Mekong Basin (Sutter and Huang 2006c). Finally, the leaders pledged to implement the 2002 DOC and to promote joint economic development in the South China Sea.
By the end of 2006, ASEAN and China had concluded twenty-eight ‘cooperation framework mechanisms,’ including regular consultations between senior officials on strategic and political security cooperation, a yearly conference of foreign ministers, and an annual summit meeting of government leaders (Sutter and Hoang 2006b). These developments provided a foundation for the potential development of security and defense cooperation in the future.
The 11th China-ASEAN and ASEAN Plus China summits were held in Singapore in November 2007. Premier Wen Jiabao’s keynote speeches reiterated staple themes of Chinese foreign policy (Sutter and Huang 2007d). Wen urged his Southeast Asian counterparts to step up cooperation and joint development in the South China Sea under the umbrella of the 2002 DOC. He also repeated China’s call for closer military cooperation in dealing with non-traditional threats to security. Wen also suggested exchanges among national defence academies. And, in a relatively new development, Premier Wen called for the setting up of a joint expert group to study proposals for pan-Beibu (Tonkin) Gulf economic cooperation. [26]
In March 2008, China-ASEAN military cooperation took a step forward when China hosted a high-level meeting of ASEAN senior defence officials and scholars (Sutter and Huang 2008a). The focus of the meeting was on building China-ASEAN regional and military confidence. Regional anxieties about China’s increased defence spending and force modernization was voiced by an Indonesian official who called on China to be more transparent and not to use its increased capabilities to threaten regional states.
When Vietnam joined ASEAN in July 1995 it agreed to adhere to all multilateral arrangements entered into between ASEAN and China. After joining ASEAN, Vietnam participated in ASEAN’s consensual decision-making process in shaping future relations with China. The structure of ASEAN-China relations thus forms an important part of Vietnam’s framework for the conduct of bilateral relations with its northern neighbour.
ASEAN Regional Forum. Vietnam was a founding member of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994. The ARF provides a multilateral framework for Vietnam’s defence-security relations and interaction with China and other major powers.
When China first joined the ASEAN Regional Forum it was highly suspicious about multilateral activities that might curtail its national sovereignty. Over time, however, China has come to embrace multilateral security cooperation under the auspices of the ARF (Ba 2006). China has taken a particularly active role in the ARF’s inter-sessional work program related to confidence building measures. In March 1997, for example, China hosted the Inter-Sessional Group on Confidence Building Measures, and did so again in November 2003.
In 1997, China sent representatives to the ARF meeting of Heads of Defense Colleges and hosted the 4th ARF meeting of the Heads of Defense Colleges in September 2000. This meeting was opened by Defence Minister Chi Haotian, who argued that the ARF’s stress on dialog and consultation represented a ‘new security concept’ and the trend of ‘multi-polarization’ in the region. Chi noted that regional flash points still existed, ‘hegemonism and power politics have shown new traces of development’ and ‘democracy and human rights’ were being used as excuses for intervention, and separatism was gaining ground. All these will endanger or jeopardize the security and stability of the region. That’s why we advocate that all countries adopt the new security concept built upon equality, dialogue, mutual confidence and cooperation. [27]
In 2000, China also contributed for the first time to the ARF’s Annual Security Outlook and began providing voluntary briefings on regional security.
While China’s participation in the ARF’s program of confidence building measures has evolved over time, China’s endorsement of preventive diplomacy has been more circumscribed. In a Defence White Paper issued in late 2000, China provided this cautious assessment:
China holds that the ARF should continue to focus on confidence-building measures, explore new security concepts and methods, and discuss the question of preventive diplomacy. At the same time, it believes that the parties concerned should have a full discussion first on the concept, definition, principles and scope of preventive diplomacy in the Asia-Pacific region and reach consensus in this regard (People’s Republic of China 2001).
According to one China analyst ‘two of the defining features of that document [the 2000 Defence White Paper] were the emphasis on the dominance of peace and development as forces driving global development and a corollary imperative toward implementing external policies based upon multilateral cooperative approaches’ (Montaperto 2004b). Since 2000, China has consistently promoted its new security concept as the preferred framework for multilateral cooperation. In July 2002, for example, China outlined its new security concept in a position paper presented to the annual ARF ministerial meeting.
In 2003, China launched a major initiative to further its new concept of security. At the annual ARF ministerial meeting in Phnom Penh, China proposed the creation of a Security Policy Conference comprised of senior military and civilian officials at vice minister level drawn from all ARF members. The objective of this new security mechanism was to draft a security treaty to promote ‘peace, stability and prosperity’ in the region. Chinese officials said the new treaty would give equal attention to the concerns of all ARF members and guarantee security through united action rather than seeking ‘absolute security for oneself and threaten[ing] other parties’ security’ (Breckon 2003b).
China drafted and circulated a concept paper prior to hosting the first ARF Security Policy Conference in November 2004 (Dillon and Tkacik 2005). Premier Wen Jiabao opened the conference to underscore China’s commitment to multilateral security cooperation. Delegates to this inaugural conference agreed to start modestly by considering new channels of communication to deal with counter terrorism and non-traditional threats (Montaperto 2004b).
At the 11th ARF Ministerial Meeting in 2004, China tabled a series of proposals for the future development of the ARF. These were later summarized as follows:
To maintain its forum nature and adhere to the basic principles of decision-making through consensus, taking an incremental approach, and moving at a pace comfortable to all members so as to encourage the initiative and active participation of all members; to continuously strengthen and consolidate confidence-building measures (CBMs) while actively addressing the issue of preventive diplomacy, so as to gradually find out cooperative methods and approaches for preventive diplomacy that are suitable to the region and fitting the current needs; to increase participation of defense officials, promote exchanges and cooperation among militaries of the countries concerned and give full play to the important role of the militaries in enhancing mutual trust; to highlight cooperation in non-traditional security fields such as counter-terrorism and combating transnational crimes (People’s Republic of China 2004).
In December 2004 China issued another Defense White Paper. It identified five main areas of international security cooperation: strategic consultation and dialogue; regional security cooperation; cooperation in non-traditional security fields, participating in United Nations peacekeeping operations; and military exchanges. Chapter nine highlighted the importance China placed on its interaction with ASEAN and the ASEAN Regional Forum.
The Defense White Paper also set out Beijing’s policy on international cooperation in the area of defense-related science, technology and industry including the export of military products and related technologies. According to this document, China’s exports in this sensitive area were governed by three principles: ‘It should only serve the purpose of helping the recipient state enhance its capability for legitimate self-defense; it must not impair peace, security and stability of the relevant region and the world as a whole; and it must not be used to interfere in the recipient state’s internal affairs’ (People’s Republic of China 2004, chapter seven).
The 13th ARF annual meeting was held in Kuala Lumpur in July 2006. China played an important role on the major issues of the day (North Korean missile tests and Myanmar). China demonstrated once again that the ARF remained its preferred multilateral forum for the discussion of regional political and security issues (Sutter and Huang 2006b). At the 14th ARF annual meeting in Manila in August 2007, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi once again stressed China’s ‘new security concept.’ Yang also revived an old theme to warn against the actions of states (read the United States and Japan) that sought to ‘reinforce bilateral military alliances’ and seek ‘absolute military superiority’ (Sutter and Huang 2007c).
Greater Mekong Subregion. The Mekong River passes through six countries: China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. All riparian countries view the Mekong as a major resource for food, transport and energy to be utilized for national economic development. China’s rise and rapid economic growth is widely viewed as both an opportunity and a challenge for downstream states, all of whom are members of ASEAN. ASEAN and China have committed themselves to creating a free trade area. It would seem to be in the national interests of all six countries to minimize conflict over the Mekong’s shared resources by cooperating in water management and engaging in joint development. Cooperation over the Mekong should contribute to development, economic integration and regional security.
There are two major multilateral institutions that are concerned with the development of the Mekong River and its surrounding area. The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) was created in October 1992 on the initiative of the Asian Development Bank, while the Mekong River Commission (MRC) was formed in 1995. [28] China is not a member of either the GMS or MRC. The lack of official participation by the central Chinese government severely hampers the effectiveness of both these institutions. China claims sovereignty over the Upper Mekong (Lancang Jiang) and views the construction of a cascade of dams its own internal affair despite the potentially devastating impact downstream.
The GMS includes Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and the Chinese province of Yunnan and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The GMS work programme has passed through four phases: confidence-building (1992-94), identification of priority sectors (1994-96), project development (1996-2000) and project implementation (2000-present).
GMS decision-making was initially based on an annual ministerial-level meeting until 2002 when it was superseded by regular summit meetings. China hosted the 2nd GMS Summit in Kunming, Yunnan in July 2005. Premier Wen Jiabao in his keynote address to the summit reaffirmed China’s financial commitment to GMS programmes and tabled a seven-point plan to step up economic cooperation and infrastructure development (Montaperto 2005c). Wen also announced that preferential tariffs would be granted to goods from Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar.
It is significant to note that cooperation under GMS auspices is not undertaken on the basis of a formal treaty or other legally-binding obligation. Rather, GMS cooperation has become imbued with the norms of ‘the ASEAN Way’, that is, decision-making is informal and voluntary. Individual GMS members are permitted to undertake cooperative programmes without first obtaining the consent of all parties.
The GMS may be viewed as the sum of its mini-lateral cooperative programs. Agreed programmes are implemented by subregional coordinating committees, working groups and fora in nine sectoral areas: transportation infrastructure, telecommunications, energy development, environmental management, human resources development, trade facilitation, investment, tourism and agriculture.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to consider all forms of cooperation under the umbrella of the GMS. The GMS takes in a much wider geographical area than the Mekong River basin and thus provides a unique framework for cooperation between Vietnam and China to develop their respective border regions. Since the early 1990s, both China and Vietnam have included the development of border regions in their national development plans.
Cross-border cooperation involves the interplay of national and local authorities and has led to burgeoning trade as well as substantial development of energy, communications and transport infrastructure. Since 2004, for example, China has emerged as Vietnam’s largest trading partner with trade weighted heavily in China’s favour. Vietnam is Guangxi province’s most important trading partner. Vietnam buys electricity from Yunnan province’s power grid. The border crossing at Lao Cai-Hekou has developed into a substantial market, and land locked Kunming has access to the sea via a rail line that passes through Lao Cai to the port of Hai Phong. As noted above, in October 2004 Premier Wen Jiabao described the infrastructure linking China and Vietnam as ‘two corridors, one circle’.
In November 2004, China announced that it would increase funding to upgrade the rail line between Kunming and Hanoi. A year later, a new highway connecting Nanning and National Route 1 in Vietnam was opened. In 2007, China and Vietnam agreed to construct an economic cooperation zone astride the border at Pingxiang city, Guangxi and Lang Son province in Vietnam (Sutter and Huang 2007b). In March 2008, Vietnam and China signed a MOU to include the Nanning-Hanoi corridor and the Youyiguan-Huu Nghi Border Crossing Point under the umbrella of the GMS Cross-Border Transport Agreement. In May 2008, Vietnam hosted the first conference of the Joint Working Committee including officials from Cao Bang, Lang Son and Quang Ninh provinces and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Two months later, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung approved the construction of a six-lane expressway from Hanoi to Lang Son to connect with Guangxi. The net result of cross-border cooperation has been to facilitate the movement of Chinese goods beyond Vietnam to Southeast Asia.
Part 3. Issues in Sino-Vietnamese Cooperation
In October 2007, Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, speaking to the 17th party congress, introduced the concept of ‘harmonious world’ to replace ‘China’s peaceful rise’ and ‘China’s peaceful development’ as the major foreign policy theme of his tenure (for background see Zhang 2007). There were three major implications for Southeast Asia (Sutter and Huang 2007d). First, China sought to bolster its influence in the region by forging strategic partnerships with Southeast Asian states through economic integration and cooperation in non-traditional issues. Second, China sought to develop its southern region (Yunnan and Guangxi) by promoting the development of the Greater Mekong Subregion and pan-Beibu (Tonkin) Gulf. Third, China continued to support ASEAN and other regional organisations as long as they were beneficial to itself. [29]
Greater Mekong Subregion. Multilateral cooperation to develop the Mekong River Basin and the Greater Mekong Subregion is hostage to China’s absence from these two bodies, the participation of Yunnan province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the GMS notwithstanding. China commands the dominant position because it is the upstream state and by virtue of its economic power and growing military might. China has made it repeatedly clear that it rejects the principles of water management adopted by the MRC. The construction of a cascade of dams on the Upper Mekong (Langcang Jiang) reportedly is already impacting negatively on downstream states. If China continues with its plans to construct further dams, this will have potentially wide ranging impacts on water flow and the ecosystem including Vietnam’s rice basket, the Mekong Delta.
The MRC and GMS, although they share similar goals and objectives, pursue them by different means and structures. A recent study by Mark Buntaine (2007) concluded that China has deliberately fostered the development of overlapping non-hierarchical institutions in order to separate economic development from environmental issues. Buntaine terms this process ‘issue fragmentation’, that is, ‘China has used its position as a regional leader to focus policy coordination in institutions favourable to its interests, while fragmenting overlapping institutions through selective participation’ (2007). In other words, despite the growing economic interdependence of states comprising the Greater Mekong Subregion, Chinese actions have retarded the development of cooperative governance structures. Vietnam is thus unable to raise its concerns about seasonal waters flows into the Mekong Delta in either the MRC (of which China is not a member) or the GMS (because the focus is on cross-border trade and infrastructure development).
Gulf of Tonkin. In contrast to the Greater Mekong Subregion, Vietnam and China have been able to cooperate successfully in the Gulf of Tonkin. The foundation for Sino-Vietnamese cooperation rests on the 2000 agreement that delineated the maritime boundary by setting out precise map coordinates along a modified line of equidistance (Amer 2004: 332). [30] The agreement came into force in June 2004 with the signing of the supplementary protocol on the joint fishing area. In October 2004, Premier Wen Jiabao came to Hanoi to firm up fishing cooperation as well as to speed up the process of demarcation of the land border .
In January 2005, a reported shooting incident in the Tonkin Gulf that led to death of eight Vietnamese fishermen, highlighted the need to manage the common fishing zone (Thao and Amer 2007: 313). Despite this incident, in November 2005, the Vietnam Petroleum Corporation (PetroVietnam) and the China National Offshore Oil Corporation reached agreement to conduct joint exploration for oil and gas in the Gulf of Tonkin. On January 2007, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung approved this agreement. As noted above, Vietnam and China conducted their first joint naval patrols in April 2006. Four additional patrols have been carried out since then: December 2006, July 2007, October 2007, and May 2008.
Secretary General Nong Duc Manh visited Beijing in late May-early June 2008 at the invitation of Hun Jintao, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (Sutter and Huang 2008b). Their joint statement declared, ‘the two sides will continue to implement the [Gulf of Tonkin] Demarcation Agreement and the Agreement on Fishery Cooperation in the [Gulf of Tonkin] and carry out joint inspection in the fishing zone, joint survey of fishery resources, and joint naval patrols. The two sides will accelerate the implementation of the Framework Agreement on Oil and Natural Gas Cooperation in Agreed Zones in the [Gulf of Tonkin]…’ [31]
Also, China and Vietnam have entered into discussions to delineate waters beyond the mouth of the Gulf of Tonkin. The fourth meeting on this issue was held in Beijing in January 2008.
South China Sea. The dispute between Vietnam and China over waters and features in the South China Sea has proved intractable. Despite progress over issues relating to the Gulf of Tonkin, overlapping claims to the South China Sea remain a constant irritant. In October 2004, after Premier Wen Jiabao’s successful visit to Hanoi, China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs voiced ‘serious concern’ about Vietnam’s release of bids to explore for oil and gas in waters over its continental shelf (Montaperto 2004b). China claimed that Vietnamese actions went against earlier commitments. Vietnam nonetheless proceeded with the bidding process.
Minor incidents continued to crop up. In March 2005, China claimed that its fishermen in the South China Sea had been attacked by Vietnamese ‘sea robbers’ (Montaperto 2005a). China called on Vietnam to join with it to suppress maritime crimes. Two months later a Vietnamese cargo ship sank off the coast of Shanghai fueling speculation that it had been fired upon by Chinese naval forces which conducted naval maneuvers at that time. On May 12th, the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement declaring that China was not responsible for the ship’s loss (Montaperto 2005b).
Expert-level talks on maritime issues (South China Sea), which were inaugurated in November 1995, are still ongoing. Both sides have yet to agree on an agenda. Vietnam insists that both the Paracel and Spratly archipelagoes be included in the discussions. China insists that the Paracels be excluded and that the discussions focus on the Spratlys including disputed waters and continental shelf.
In April 2006, the 10th National VCP Congress adopted a resolution decreeing that Vietnam’s maritime areas should be developed with a focus on sectors that have comparative advantages ‘in order to develop a strong maritime economy, maintain national defence and security in a spirit of international cooperation’. This matter was considered by the fourth plenum of VCP the Central Committee that met in January 2007. Reports submitted to this meeting noted that there was no coherent plan to integrate the economic development of coastal areas with the exploitation of marine resources in Vietnam’s territorial waters. Economists estimated that by 2020, the marine economy could contribute up to 55 percent of GDP and between 55-60 percent of exports if it were developed in a comprehensive manner.
The fourth plenum directed that a national Maritime Strategy Towards the Year 2020 be drawn up to integrate economic development with environmental protection and national defence and security. The Vietnam People’s Army was tasked with ‘defending territorial waters and safeguarding national sovereignty.’ The maritime strategy was completed by the end of the year but has not yet been released publicly.
Vietnam’s adoption of a new maritime strategy coincided with increased Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea. China claims the waters and features that Vietnam seeks to develop. China has reportedly applied pressure on foreign firms that were likely to be involved in developing Vietnam’s maritime sector, warning them that their commercial operations in China might suffer if they became involved in developing areas claimed by China. In July 2008, for example, an ExxonMobile executive revealed that his company had come under Chinese pressure to scrap a preliminary exploration agreement with PetroVietnam. [32]
In March 2007, it was announced that British Petroleum (BP) and its partners had submitted plans to the Vietnamese Ministry of Industry to invest US $2 billion in a major expansion in gas and power over the next decade. These plans included installing at least two natural gas pipelines connecting off shore deposits in two new gas fields, Moc Tinh and Hai Thach, in the Nam Con Son basin in the South China Sea. BP’s plans also included the construction of a power plant in Nhon Trach in Dong Nai province. [33] BP currently maintains the only operational pipeline which connects the Lan Tay-Lan Do gas field in the Nam Con Son basin to the Phu My power complex in Ba Ria-Vung Tau. The new fields to be connected to the proposed pipeline are adjacent to the fields from which BP presently operates.
The question of BP’s future operations quickly became a contentious issue in Sino-Vietnamese relations. On April 10tth, Qin Gang, a spokesperson for the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was directly asked by a reporter from the state-run media about BP’s proposed pipeline and Vietnam’s plan to hold voting for the National Assembly on its possessions in the South China Sea. Qin replied, ‘China has indisputable sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and their adjacent waters and neighbouring marine areas… Vietnam’s new actions, which infringe on China’s sovereignty, sovereign rights and administrative rights on the Nansha Islands, go against the important consensus reached by leaders of the two countries on the maritime issue and are not beneficial to stability of the South China Sea area.’ [34] Qin noted that any one-sided action taken by any country in the South China Sea is ‘illegal and invalid’ constituting an encroachment upon Chinese territorial sovereignty. [35] Qin was also quoted as stating: ‘It is not beneficial to stability in the South China Sea area. The Chinese side is paying close attention and we have already made serious representations to the Vietnamese side.’ [36]
By way of response, on April 11th, Le Dzung, a spokesperson for Vietnam’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stated that Vietnam has sufficient historical evidence and legal basis to confirm its sovereignty over the Hoang Sa (Paracel) and Truong Sa (Spratly) Islands. Dzung said Vietnam’s operations conducted on its islands and territorial waters, including plot divisions, exploration and exploitation of oil and gas were ‘completely normal’. They were, he said, ‘in line with Vietnamese law as well as international laws and practices, particularly the 1982 United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea and the 2002 Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the East Sea.’ [37] Dzung also noted that Vietnam’s partnership with BP dated to 2000 and ‘is within Vietnam’s exclusive economic area and continental shelf, and is within Vietnam’s sovereignty.’ [38] The Lan Tay-Lan Do field has been producing natural gas for power generation since 2002. [39]
In April 2007, during the exchange of claims and counter-claims, Chinese naval vessels detained four Vietnamese fishing boats near Spratly islands and fined their crews (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11). And in June, as a result of Chinese pressure, BP announced it was halting seismic work off southern Vietnam until Sino-Vietnamese tensions subsided. Events took a turn for the worse on July 9, 2007 when an incident reportedly occurred between a People’s Liberation Army Navy vessel and Vietnamese fishing boats near the Paracels resulting in the sinking of one Vietnamese boat and the death of one Vietnamese fisherman (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11). [40]
At the end of the year, PLAN exercises in the Paracel Islands from November 16-23, 2007 provoked Vietnamese protests (Sutter and Huang 2007d). A Foreign Ministry spokesperson declared that the Chinese naval exercises violated Vietnamese sovereignty and ‘was not in line with the common perception’ and spirit reached by leaders at recent high-level discussions in Singapore. Vietnam reiterated its sovereignty over the Paracel and Spratly islands but also called for a peaceful resolution of differences. China’s Foreign Ministry responded by dismissing Vietnam’s statement as unreasonable and as usual claimed ‘irrefutable sovereignty’ over both archipelagoes.
No action was more inflammatory than the reported decision of the National People’s Congress to create Sansha city in Hainan province with administrative responsibility over three archipelagoes in the South China Sea, the Paracels, Spratlys and Zhongsa (Office of the Secretary of Defense 2008: 11 and Sutter and Huang 2007d). [41] Vietnam’s Foreign Ministry responded on December 4, 2007 by declaring the NPC’s actions an ‘encroachment’ on Vietnamese sovereignty. The NPC’s actions also provoked anti-China student demonstrations in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City on 9th and 16th December 2007. [42] China immediately protested. Vietnam’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs told China that the protests were spontaneous and not approved. ASEAN ambassadors were also called in and given the same message.
Early in the new year matters heated up when China accused twelve Vietnamese fishing boats of firing on ten Chinese trawlers in the Gulf of Tonkin on 7th January. Although there were no fatalities, several Chinese boats were hit by bullets. Vietnam dismissed Chinese allegations and replied that the incident was caused when fishing nets and tackles had become entangled. [43]
In order to diffuse growing tensions, Vietnam and China convened the second meeting of the China-Vietnam Steering Committee on Cooperation in Beijing from January 23-25, 2008 (Sutter and Huang 2008a). [44] Vietnam was represented by Pham Gia Khiem, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and China was represented by Tang Jiaxuan, State Councillor. Khiem also conferred with his counterpart Yang Jiechi. The Steering Committee discussed trade issues as well as ‘sensitive and important matters related to [the] bilateral relationship in a frank manner, including border and territorial issues’. [45] Both sides agreed to sign a treaty on land border management regulations in future and to carry out a number of projects in less sensitive areas such as oceanic research, crime prevention and control, environmental protections and a joint survey of the water area off the Gulf of Tonkin. [46] Finally, both sides agreed ‘not to further complicate the situation’ and to ‘properly handle problems in bilateral relations’ through ‘dialogue and consultations.’
The growing friction between China and Vietnam was addressed by a ‘summit meeting’ of communist party leaders who met in Beijing from May 30-June 2, 2008. A wide range of issues were discussed including trade and investment ties, science and technology cooperation and educational exchanges. The territorial dispute in the South China Sea was referred to obliquely in the official media as a problem ‘left over from history’. A commentary in Nhan Dan on 30th May, for example, mentioned in passing the ‘maintenance of stability in the East Sea’.
According to media accounts, at the summit, when Hu Jintao ‘suggested a proper solution to existing issues between the countries on the basis of friendly consultations and mutual benefit’, Nong Duc Manh replied that he shared Hu’s views and that ‘the two countries should communicate promptly about their concerns.’ The two leaders agreed ‘to build an exchange and co-operation mechanism between concerned agencies of the two Parties… and foster an effective co-operation mechanism between foreign ministries and agencies, national defence, public security and security forces’. The two party leaders also agreed that the most appropriate coordinating mechanism to handle their relations was the bilateral Steering Committee. [47]
A joint statement issued after official talks between the two party leaders declared that China and Vietnam would base future cooperation in the Gulf of Tonkin on agreements reached in 2004 demarcating claims and fishing rights. The two leaders pledged to continue joint naval patrols and to conduct a joint survey of waters outside the mouth of the Tonkin Gulf. Hu and Manh also agreed to complete the laying of land border markers by the end of the year. However the most significant development in the joint statement was the decision by China and Vietnam to raise bilateral relations to the level of a strategic partnership and to establish a hotline between party leaders. [48]
Immediately prior to Manh’s visit to Beijing commercial satellite imagery was released to the public confirming that China was building a major naval base on Hainan Island, The high-resolution satellite photographs showed major surface combatants as well as a single nuclear submarine were stationed there. Other satellite imagery of piers and docks indicated that the Sanya Naval Base had the potential to accommodate large surface combatants including assault ships.
The development of Sanya Naval Base was paralleled by China’s construction of an airfield at Woody Island in the Paracel islands, and consolidation of facilities at Fiery Cross Reef and the maintenance of a continuing naval presence at Mischief Reef both in the Spratly archipelago. In sum, China is rapidly acquiring an enhanced capability to exercise its sovereignty claims over the South China Sea and protect its vital Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC) through the Malacca and Singapore Straits through which much of its energy resources flow.
Other construction indicates that the Sanya Naval Base will have strategic implications for the balance of power in the region. Portions of the base are being built underground to provide facilities that cannot be easily monitored. Satellite imagery has confirmed the presence of a Chinese Type 094 Jin-class submarine since late 2007. [49] The Type-094 submarine is a second-generation nuclear vessel and represents China’s most lethal naval strike weapon. According to the U.S. Defense Department five more SSBNs could become operational by 2010. When the submarine facilities are completed they will provide China with the capability to station a substantial proportion of its submarine-based nuclear deterrence capabilities on Hainan. If China can develop the necessary operational skills its nuclear subs will be able to patrol and fire from concealed positions in deep waters off Hainan.
In August 2008, four Chinese-language websites carried an alleged Chinese plan to invade Vietnam. According to this document, ‘Vietnam… is a major threat to the safety of Chinese territories, and the biggest obstacle to the peaceful emergence of China’ and ‘Vietnam has to be conquered first’ if China wanted to exercise its traditional influence in the region. [50] In response, Vietnam twice summoned senior Chinese diplomats to its Foreign Ministry to voice concerns about the possible negative impact on bilateral relations and to request the removal of the offending document from Chinese web sites. [51]
Conclusion
For several years scholars have been engaged in an on-going debate about how states in the Asia-Pacific Region are responding to China’s rise. Generally, five major strategies have been identified: balancing, hedging, bandwagoning, engagement and omni-enmeshment (Kang 2003 and 2003/04, Acharya 2003/04, Roy 2005, Vuving 2005, Womack 2006 and Goh 2007/08).
There are two forms of balancing (Roy 2005). The first is external and involves collaboration by two or more states against a potential adversary. The second form is internal and involves developing defence self-reliance and national cohesion. Hedging is a general strategy and refers to keeping more than one option open. For example, a state may pursue a strategy of engagement while hedging at the same time. There are two forms of bandwagoning. The first involves alignment with potential adversary in order to ward off possible coercive measures. The second form of bandwagoning involves seeking economic gain by being on the ‘winning side’.
The strategy of engagement refers to opening up multifaceted relations with another state in the expectation that the rewards of such a relationship will result in reciprocity and maintenance of the status quo. According to Roy engagement is a strategy whereby a state uses inclusion and rewards to attempt to socialize a dissatisfied power into accepting the rules and institutions of the pre-existing international order’ (2005: 306) Finally, the strategy of omni-enmeshment refers ‘to the process of engaging with a state so as to draw it into deep involvement in international or regional society, enveloping it in a web of sustained exchanges and relationships, with the long-term aim of integration’ (Goh 2007/08” 120-121).
Vietnam has been put between a rock and a hard place over Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea in 2007-08. In terms of public diplomacy, China has repeatedly offered to observe the DOC and to settle outstanding matters peacefully. Yet in private China continues to exert diplomatic and military pressure on Vietnam to acquiesce to Chinese sovereignty claims in the South China Sea. Chinese pressures on international companies to cease assisting Vietnam in the development of off-shore oil and gas resources threatens to scuttle Vietnamese plans to develop its maritime area. In the face of these challenges what strategy is Vietnam pursuing ?
The data in this paper clearly demonstrates that Vietnam is not pursuing a balance of power strategy in relation to China’s rise. Neither is Vietnam bandwagoning with China in an effort to ward of possible coercion or to gain economic advantage. According to the then deputy head of the National Assembly’s External Relations Committee, Ton Nu Thi Ninh, ‘everyone knows that we have to keep a fine balance‘ neither ‘leaning over’ toward the United States or ‘bow[ing]’ to China. [52] There is evidence, not discussed in this paper, that Vietnam is pursuing a strategy of internal balancing by a modest effort to modernize its military forces and by maintaining national unity (Thayer 2008b and 2008c).
Vietnam appears to be pursuing a mix of engagement, omni-enmeshment and hedging strategies towards China. Vietnam pursues engagement primarily in its bilateral relations with China under the terms of the long-term cooperative framework agreement of 2000. Vietnam has attempted to manage and codify its relations with China through understandings reached at regular high-level meetings between party secretary generals and state presidents. Bilateral relations are broken down into issue areas and dealt with through joint working groups at expert, government and ministerial levels. These structures have resulted in a land border treaty, a treaty delimiting the Gulf of Tonkin and an agreement on fisheries cooperation. When the laying of the land border markers is completed this will represent a major confidence-building measure.
Vietnam also pursues a strategy of omni-enmeshment through membership in ASEAN and the Greater Mekong Subregion. China is one of ASEAN’s dialogue partners. ASEAN and China have institutionalized their relations through a strategic partnership involving annual summit meetings of heads of state/government, the ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee, ASEAN-China Senior Officials Meeting process, ASEAN-China political-security consultations, ASEAN-China Joint Working Group on the South China Sea and other mechanisms. ASEAN and China are presently pursuing a Free Trade Area.
ASEAN is also the core of other regional multilateral organizations such as the ARF that serve to manage relations with China. The Greater Mekong Subregion and the Mekong River Commission are weak institutional reeds in comparison to ASEAN or the ARF. China is not represented at the central government level but by Yunnan province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Nevertheless, the GMS structure has provided a very important framework that facilitates extensive cross-border economic relations and infrastructural development. ASEAN and China have agreed to undertake joint action to develop the GMS. China is not a formal member of the MRC but has become a dialogue partner thus opening up another area for Vietnam to pursue relations with China through multilateral structures.
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* Professor of Politics, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University College, The University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra. Professor Thayer is currently on leave as Visiting Fellow at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, The Australian National University. He may be contacted at: c.thayer@adfa.edu.au. Completed September 29, 2008.
[1] Xinhua Domestic Service, February 27, 1999.
[2] Vietnam News Agency, December 25, 2000.
[3] These arrangements were variously titled: framework agreement, framework document, joint statement and joint declaration. For a detailed analysis consult: Thayer 2003a. For recent overviews of China’s bilateral relations with Southeast Asia consult: Haacke 2005 and Percival 2007.
[4] China already conducts defence security consultations with Thailand and the Philippines.
[5] ‘China, Vietnam issue joint communiqué,’ People’s Daily Online, July 21, 2005..
[6] Jane’s Defense Weekly, January 4, 2006, on line edition. China’s state-owned armed supplier, NORINCO, was reported to have sold small arms ammunition artillery shells, and military vehicles to Vietnam. NORINCO was also reported to be assisting Vietnam in the co-production of ammunition and heavy machine guns.
[7] Nhan Dan, April 8, 2006.
[8] Xinhua August 9, 2006.
[9] Xinhua, August24, 2006. China had earlier provided funds for the construction of the 300 MW Cam Pha thermal Power Plant.
[10] ‘China-Vietnam Joint Communiqué’, Beijing, August 24, 2006.
[11] Vietnam News Service, October 25, 2006.
[12] VNA, October 31, 2006.
[13] Xinhua, November 1, 2006 and VNA, November 1, 2006.
[14] The two corridors consist of transport routes from Nanning to Lang Son-Hanoi-Hai Phong and Kunming-Lao Cai-Hanoi-Hai Phong. The circle (or belt) refers to the joint development of the Gulf of Tonkin. IN September 2008, the Asian Development Bank agreed to provide US $1.1 billion to build a 244 kilometre highway linking Hanoi with Kunming. This is the most expensive project to be funded by the ADB.
[15] The two ministers also agreed to continue to address differences over the South China Sea.
[16] ‘Vietnam, China enhance border defence cooperation,’Vietnam.net, November 9, 2007.
[17] Joint Press Release, ‘The First ASEAN-China Joint Cooperation Committee Meeting’, Beijing, February 26-28, 1997.
[18] Joint Statement of the Meeting of Heads of State/Government of the Member States of ASEAN and the President of the People’s Republic of China, December 16, 1997.
[19] The MOU followed a special meeting held in Bangkok in April 2003 to discuss joint action to deal with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic. In September 2004, China hosted the ARF Workshop on Drug-Substitute Alternative Development and in March 2005, China hosted an ARF seminar on enhancing cooperation in the field of non-traditional security issues.
[20] Joint Declaration of the Heads of State/Government of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the People’s Republic of China on Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity, October 8, 2003. For an analysis consult: Breckon 2003a.
[21] Plan of Action to Implement the Joint Declaration of ASEAN-China Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity.
[22] In 2007, however, Indonesia proposed seeking technical assistance from both China and Japan on an ASEAN-wide and bilateral basis to build up the capacity of the littoral states; see Shefall Rekhi, ‘Indonesia seeks wider China and Japan role’, The Straits Times, June 4, 2007.
[23] “Tripartite agreement on joint survey of seismic activity in East Sea signed’, Vietnam News Agency, March 14, 2005 and Ma. Theresa Torres and Niel Villegas Mugas, ‘RP, China, Vietnam to explore Spratlys’, The Manila Times, March 16, 2005. Premier Weh Jiabao and Prime Minister Phan Van Khai held sidelilne discussions at the 2nd GMS Summit in July 2005 and agreed to work more closely with the Philippies to implement the joint agreement; ‘China, Vietnam agree to joint exploration of disputed areas’, Xinhua, Beijing, July 4, 2005; and ‘China, Philippines, Vietnam work on disputed South China Sea area’, Xinhua, August 27, 2005. This agreement lapsed in 2008.
[24] Xinhuanet, Beijing, July 19, 2005 in People’s Liberation Army Daily, July 20, 2005.
[25] Agence France-Presse, ‘Philippines, China, Vietnam to cooperate in Spratlys security’, Channelnewsasia.com, May 19, 2006.
[26] The third annual Pan-Beibu Gulf economic cooperation forum was held in Beihai, Guangxi in July 2008. It was attended by delegates from Brunei, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. The first two forums were held in Nanning, Guangxi in 2006 and 2007.
[27] Xinhua News Agency, September 6, 2000.
[28] The current MRC had its origins in the Mekong Committee formed in 1957. In 1975 Cambodia (Khmer Rouge regime) withdrew and an Interim Mekong Committee (IMC) was created in 1978. After the settlement of the Cambodian conflict in 1991, Cambodia rejoined and the IMC became the Mekong River Commission. Current membership includes Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam but not China and Myanmar. In 1995 a dialogue mechanism was created for MRC discussions with China and Myanmar.
[29] Zhai Kun, ‘Harmony through East Asia Friendship,’ China Daily, November 19, 2007.
[30] The line of equidistance had to be modified in order to take into account the effect of islands, such as Vietnam’s Bach Long Vi.
[31] ‘Joint Statement Between China and Vietnam,’ People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 1, 2008.
[32] Greg Torode, ‘Tussle for oil in the South China Sea’, South China Morning Post, July 20, 2008.
[33] Dong Ha, ‘BP, PetroVietnam rearrange gas pipeline overhauls plan’, Thanh Nien, March 14, 2007
[34] Xinhua, People’s Daily Online, April 10, 2007; for a slightly different rendition consult Reuters, ‘Vietnam stirring trouble with gas pipe plan – China’, April 10, 2007.
[35] Xinhua, People’s Daily Online, April 10, 2007.
[36] Quoted by Reuters, April 10, 2007. Qin Gang’s remarks were carried by the Shanghai Daily and The China Daily on April 11, 2007.
[37] Thong Tan Xa Viet Nam, Thanh Nien, April 12, 2007.
[38] Thanh Nien, April 12, 2007.
[39] This area is separate from the area where the national oil companies China, the Philippines and Vietnam conducted joint seismic exploration; Voice of Vietnam, April 12, 2007.
[40] Neither China nor Vietnam has provided a public account of this incident. It is unlikely that Vietnam People’s Army naval vessels were involved in this incident. But it is highly possible that fishing vessels that form part of local security forces could have been involved. There is a real grey area concerning local self-defence forces and militia. It is even more likely that armed Vietnamese fishermen were involved. China typically embellishes incidents to suits its purposes and its use of the expression ‘armed vessels’ is an example of such calculated ambiguity.
[41] Mingpao [Hong Kong], November 19, 2007 quoting an official of the Wenchang Propaganda Department, Hainan. Later another official on Hainan denied that this issue was on the NPC’s agenda, ‘Plan to designate islands a city denied,’ South China Morning Post, December 19 2007.
[42] Agence France-Presse, Hanoi, December 15, 2007.
[43] Roger Mitton, ‘Viet Minister Off to Beijing to Mend Fences,’ The Straits Times, January 23, 2008.
[44] The Vietnamese delegation included Deputy Minister of Defence Nguyen Huy Hieu who met separately with members of the Committee of Science, Technology and Industry, Ministry of Defence Hieu expressed an interest in deepening cooperation in personnel training, frontier and coastal defence and ‘other fields’.
[45] Deputy Foreign Minister Vu Dung, ‘Boosting Vietnam-China ties for mutual benefits’, VietNamNet Bridge, January 30, 2008. Dung is the general secretary for Vietnam on the Steering Committee.
[46] Vietnam News Agency, January 23, 2008.
[47] Hu also pressed his Vietnamese counterpart to agree on a five-year blueprint on trade cooperation. Both leaders witnessed the signing of agreements on veterinary and animal quarantine and plant protection and plant quarantine, and a credit contract for a nitrogenous fertilizer plant in Ninh Binh province.
[48] ‘Full text of China-Vietnam Joint Statement, Xinhua, June 1, 2008. Vietnam has strategic partnerships with Russia, India and Japan and ‘strategic relations’ with France. Vietnam and the United States have both mentioned raising their bilateral relations to the strategic level.
[49] The presence of a nuclear submarine, and potential future deployments, calls into question China’s ability to sign the Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear-Weapon Free Zone in good faith.
[50] ‘Invade Vietnam: Plan A’, English-language translation of the ‘thirty-one day invasion plan’ posted on Chinese websites. I am grateful to Greg Torode for providing a copy of this document.
[51] Greg Torode, ‘Vietnam Protests Over Chinese ”Invasion Plans”’, South China Morning Post, September 5, 2008, Jonathan Adams, ‘Vietnam protests hawkish Chinese Web postings’, The Christian Science Monitor, September 10, 2008 and Rowan Callick, ‘China’s netizens menace Vietnam’, The Australian, September 11, 2008.
[52] Quoted by Jane Perlez, ‘U.S. competes with China for Vietnam’s allegiance”, International Herald Tribune, 19 June 2006.
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